Supporting Information.
Understanding the importance of small patches of habitat for conservation
Ayesha I.T. Tulloch, Megan D. Barnes, Jeremy Ringma, Richard A. Fuller and James E.M. Watson
Journal of Applied Ecology.
Contents
Appendix S1. Details of loss and fragmentation analyses for all vegetation communities .......................... 2
Appendix S2. Metric comparisons and supporting code............................................................................. 23
Appendix S3. Characterizing community change ........................................................................................ 32
1
Appendix S1. Details of loss and fragmentation analyses for all vegetation communities
The NVIS data represent on-ground dates of up to 2006 in Queensland, 2001 to 2005 in South Australia
(depending on the region) and 2004/5 in other jurisdictions, except New South Wales. NVIS data were
partially updated in NSW with 2001-09 data, with extensive areas of 1997 data remaining from the earlier
version of NVIS.
The patterns of vegetation loss and change to the total number of patches are not equal across vegetation
communities (Table S1, Figure S1). Some communities have fewer patches in total today compared with
historically, but most have increased the number of patches contributing to overall extent (open circles,
Figure S1). There was no consistent relationship between original extent of vegetation community and
change in the number of patches (linear model; y = -0.00005x + 27.647, R2 = 0.007).
450
% loss of
extent
350
% change in
number of
patches
80
250
60
40
150
20
50
0
Change in number of patches (%)
Loss relative to original (%)
100
-50
-20
-40
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
-150
10000000
Original extent of vegetation community (km², log scale)
Figure S1. Percentage change in the overall extent, and number of patches, of the 75 broad vegetation
communities (as defined by NVIS) in Australia. Closed circles represent loss of extent, open circles represent
change in the number of patches.
2
Vegetation communities range in proportional loss, with no clear relationship between loss relative to
original extent and original extent of the vegetation community (linear model; y = -0.00007x + 16.549, R2 =
0.004). Many communities with originally small extents have experienced high loss (closed circles, Figure
S1) as well as high fragmentation. For example, Banksia woodlands covering originally ~7300km2 of
Australia has lost almost 50% of its extent and the proportion of patches under 1000 ha has increased from
~10% to more than 25%. Temperate tussock woodlands also originally covered a relatively small proportion
of Australia (less than 17,000km2), and has lost more than 80% of its extent as well as increasing the
proportion of patches below 1000 ha from 16% to 82%. Communities with the largest historic extents
generally show low proportional loss (Table S1 and Fig. S1), with some exceptions.Eucalyptus woodlands
with either a shrubby understorey, a tussock grass understorey or a grassy understorey originally covered
large areas of south-eastern Australia (approximately 390,000km2, 725,000km2 and 190,000km2
respectively), and have lost between a quarter and a half of their original extent (Table S1). Only two
communities (tropical mixed species forests and woodlands; Acacia open woodlands and sparse shrublands
with a shrubby understorey) have increased in extent by > 10%.
We tested a number of different patch size thresholds to understand the contribution of small patches to
overall ecosystem extent (Table S1). The vegetation communities with a high proportion of patches under
5,000 ha generally also had a high proportion of patches under the 10,000 ha threshold (Table S1). The
vegetation communities with the greatest change in patch equitability (represented by the Gini coefficient)
were Mallee with a tussock grass understorey NVIS 61, Temperate tussock grasslands NVIS 36, and Open
mallee woodlands and sparse mallee shrublands with a tussock grass understorey NVIS 67 (more
equitable), and Mulga (Acacia aneura) woodlands and shrublands with hummock grass NVIS 51 and
Eucalyptus (+/- low) open woodlands with a chenopod or samphire understorey NVIS code 56 (less
equitable).
Communities were rarely ranked equally in terms of all three metrics for loss of extent, change in small
patch size representation, and change in Gini coefficient (Table S2).
3
Table S1. Results of patch threshold metrics and Gini coefficient for all 75 NVIS vegetation communities.
NVIS
code
Vegetation
community
1750s
area
% loss
%
original
in
patches
<1000
ha
%
original
in
patches
<5000
ha
%
original
in
patches
<10000
ha
%
remaining
in
patches
<1000 ha
%
remaining
in
patches
<5000 ha
%
remaining
in
patches
<10000ha
Gini
1750
Gini
current
1
Cool temperate
rainforest
8175.23
4.47
39.15
50.74
52.06
40.68
51.42
52.09
0.904
0.904
2
Tropical or subtropical rainforest
21037.41
37.82
29.29
42.41
50.30
46.47
59.55
69.18
0.944
0.907
3
Eucalyptus (+/- tall)
open forest with a
dense broad-leaved
and/or tree-fern
understorey (wet
sclerophyll)
28539.27
19.91
42.98
54.09
58.75
60.14
75.71
81.76
0.890
0.851
4
Eucalyptus open
forests with a
shrubby understorey
117520.8
21.61
28.03
41.83
48.31
38.55
53.36
58.85
0.948
0.922
5
Eucalyptus open
forests with a grassy
understorey
177016
17.82
23.70
34.56
39.16
30.88
42.86
48.49
0.952
0.936
6
Warm Temperate
Rainforest
5733
5.08
33.44
45.67
51.63
35.21
46.02
52.15
0.908
0.902
7
Tropical Eucalyptus
forest and woodlands
with a tall annual
grassy understorey
150018
3.61
2.41
4.88
6.23
2.78
5.50
6.78
0.994
0.993
8
Eucalyptus
woodlands with a
shrubby understorey
390075
30.27
9.30
18.12
22.85
15.96
25.87
30.59
0.983
0.972
9
Eucalyptus
woodlands with a
tussock grass
understorey
725123.8
11.27
7.82
13.84
17.35
17.74
27.66
32.71
0.986
0.968
10
Eucalyptus
woodlands with a
hummock grass
understorey
124434.6
0.10
7.76
13.96
17.70
7.70
14.19
18.16
0.983
0.983
11
Tropical mixed
species forests and
woodlands
10160.86
0
18.60
36.36
49.04
27.37
44.43
53.09
0.949
0.936
12
Callitris forests and
woodlands
44844.86
21.71
14.78
27.50
34.03
20.36
33.66
39.27
0.970
0.962
13
Brigalow (Acacia
harpophylla) forests
and woodlands
96492.62
86.87
8.73
22.47
33.28
62.34
88.05
94.82
0.941
0.880
14
Other Acacia forests
and woodlands
111049
23.25
19.54
35.96
46.29
25.41
42.03
50.04
0.954
0.945
4
15
Melaleuca open
forests and
woodlands
85008.46
4.14
18.54
28.35
34.11
18.53
27.84
32.48
0.964
0.962
16
Other forests and
woodlands
31874.8
6.80
19.85
37.30
44.09
21.74
40.23
47.69
0.958
0.956
17
Boulders/rock with
algae, lichen or
scattered plants, or
alpine fjaeldmarks
244.49
-6.65
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
0.639
0.645
18
Eucalyptus low open
woodlands with
hummock grass
198421.1
0.38
7.96
15.34
19.85
7.99
15.41
19.56
0.980
0.980
19
Eucalyptus low open
woodlands with
tussock grass
108721.9
8.99
16.67
33.22
43.23
18.93
35.10
45.28
0.958
0.956
20
Mulga (Acacia
aneura) woodlands
and shrublands +/tussock grass +/forbs
604351.7
2.04
0.83
3.35
5.63
1.38
4.11
6.21
0.983
0.992
21
Other Acacia tall open
shrublands and
shrublands
241262.6
5.80
5.51
10.73
14.15
6.26
11.50
14.90
0.985
0.985
22
Acacia (+/- low) open
woodlands and
sparse shrublands
with chenopods
127618.5
0.83
5.15
11.09
15.20
5.21
11.33
15.07
0.979
0.979
23
Acacia (+/- low) open
woodlands and
sparse shrublands
with hummock grass
130464.6
0.19
3.07
8.74
13.07
3.10
8.74
13.15
0.967
0.967
24
Acacia (+/- low) open
woodlands and
sparse shrublands +/tussock grass
121434.1
6.09
13.00
25.94
32.47
14.44
27.05
33.73
0.961
0.962
25
Acacia (+/- low) open
woodlands and
sparse shrublands
with a shrubby
understorey
14871.24
-14.94
13.65
21.56
24.69
7.88
14.47
17.97
0.976
0.980
26
Casuarina and
Allocasuarina forests
and woodlands
28231.79
44.26
34.73
47.99
56.27
43.95
57.36
64.58
0.927
0.902
27
Mallee with
hummock grass
166208.2
7.62
6.65
11.49
13.90
7.24
11.84
14.17
0.984
0.985
28
Low closed forest or
tall closed shrublands
(including Acacia,
Melaleuca and
Banksia)
28899.79
39.15
20.67
31.35
38.71
29.99
37.39
40.65
0.958
0.931
29
Mallee with a dense
shrubby understorey
91554.66
22.63
6.80
11.24
13.73
12.02
17.74
21.04
0.986
0.975
30
Heathlands
14357.82
0.00
38.30
54.84
65.41
41.78
58.05
67.23
0.922
0.911
5
31
Saltbush and/or
Bluebushshrublands
375736.1
0.52
3.82
7.60
9.87
3.80
7.50
9.75
0.988
0.989
32
Other shrublands
99063.18
32.17
9.75
21.06
27.95
16.96
32.51
41.28
0.979
0.968
33
Hummock grasslands
1255953
0.08
0.64
1.66
2.29
0.62
1.63
2.25
0.997
0.997
34
Mitchell grass
(Astrebla) tussock
grasslands
338101.2
1.77
3.42
9.56
13.70
3.40
9.47
13.61
0.973
0.976
35
Blue grass
(Dicanthium) and tall
bunch grass
(Chrysopogon)
tussock grasslands
28987.77
36.75
21.85
43.80
56.98
33.00
58.70
72.05
0.923
0.923
36
Temperate tussock
grasslands
16593.5
81.66
16.00
25.19
35.37
82.26
93.48
100.00
0.968
0.809
37
Other tussock
grasslands
190178.9
5.63
11.92
24.29
30.71
12.12
24.72
31.33
0.971
0.970
38
Wet tussock
grassland with herbs,
sedges or rushes,
herblands or ferns
59452.24
2.04
15.67
35.39
45.37
14.55
34.87
44.40
0.969
0.970
39
Mixed chenopod,
samphire +/- forbs
89542.7
7.93
14.52
29.61
41.35
15.18
29.69
40.00
0.965
0.966
40
Mangroves
11356.54
5.91
62.90
87.01
92.14
68.89
92.80
97.09
0.903
0.893
41
Saline or brackish
sedgelands or
grasslands
1258.81
24.86
73.84
88.38
88.38
85.70
100.00
100.00
0.855
0.824
42
Naturally bare, sand,
rock, claypan, mudflat
23287.21
6.41
41.06
58.31
64.90
41.12
58.25
64.57
0.927
0.926
43
Salt lakes and lagoons
67531.16
3.16
6.44
14.59
18.52
5.62
13.14
16.42
0.973
0.982
44
Freshwater, dams,
lakes, lagoons or
aquatic plants
17018.94
-23.07
37.49
51.49
60.79
34.70
50.75
60.84
0.927
0.934
45
Mulga (Acacia
aneura) open
woodlands and
sparse shrublands +/tussock grass
361074.9
1.85
3.85
9.53
13.44
4.45
10.37
14.37
0.982
0.983
46
Sea, estuaries
(includes seagrass)
4422.34
0.00
10.52
17.87
27.22
12.46
21.11
30.11
0.974
0.966
47
Eucalyptus open
woodlands with
shrubby understorey
15885.12
10.40
19.83
40.66
52.37
22.57
42.19
51.53
0.959
0.957
48
Eucalyptus open
woodlands with a
grassy understorey
193897.8
26.53
16.62
29.39
36.02
21.91
34.64
40.53
0.962
0.957
49
Melaleuca shrublands
and open shrublands
18214.48
8.25
34.18
48.31
54.64
37.15
49.07
54.71
0.924
0.918
50
Banksia woodlands
7327.35
49.48
9.98
18.44
19.59
26.54
38.53
42.80
0.979
0.951
51
Mulga (Acacia
aneura) woodlands
and shrublands with
hummock grass
13963.62
0.30
1.67
6.26
11.35
1.86
6.36
11.09
0.886
0.939
6
52
Mulga (Acacia
aneura) open
woodlands and
sparse shrublands
with hummock grass
4372.4
0.32
1.37
13.10
30.09
1.34
13.13
30.17
0.835
0.838
53
Eucalyptus low open
woodlands with a
shrubby understorey
5924.55
2.48
21.48
49.88
67.93
20.75
50.22
65.29
0.957
0.945
54
Eucalyptus tall open
forest with a fineleaved shrubby
understorey
9220.3
12.56
60.01
71.86
81.22
65.82
76.83
85.66
0.812
0.790
55
Mallee with an open
shrubby understorey
57074.61
27.32
15.60
22.51
25.81
20.02
27.45
32.53
0.963
0.956
56
Eucalyptus (+/- low)
open woodlands with
a chenopod or
samphire understorey
9495
13.57
7.95
19.03
27.15
9.57
18.76
23.94
0.959
0.982
57
Lignum shrublands
and wetlands
11161.39
3.59
19.97
36.70
44.13
19.54
36.41
43.97
0.958
0.962
58
Leptospermum
forests and
woodlands
1013.89
0.00
90.73
100.00
100.00
90.18
100.00
100.00
0.770
0.768
59
Eucalyptus
woodlands with
ferns, herbs, sedges,
rushes or wet tussock
grassland
16429.7
35.48
43.01
64.47
76.89
56.14
72.18
81.12
0.915
0.867
60
Eucalyptus tall open
forests and open
forests with ferns,
herbs, sedges, rushes
or wet tussock
grasses
43209.23
19.28
28.27
38.61
44.78
39.38
52.92
60.84
0.940
0.914
61
Mallee with a tussock
grass understorey
60483.5
97.33
4.70
7.16
8.42
70.72
93.35
93.35
0.991
0.830
62
Dry rainforest or vine
thickets
15719.71
35.37
43.52
70.23
82.56
56.46
72.41
75.73
0.913
0.883
63
Sedgelands, rushs or
reeds
11553.42
7.47
51.02
64.00
72.49
48.39
61.18
68.88
0.904
0.909
64
Other grasslands
15613.34
2.03
6.38
14.60
22.28
6.51
15.68
23.61
0.982
0.982
65
Eucalyptus
woodlands with a
chenopod or
samphire understorey
26747.8
18.08
7.68
10.69
13.39
10.06
12.94
14.71
0.983
0.979
66
Open mallee
woodlands and
sparse mallee
shrublands with a
hummock grass
understorey
11490.19
0.00
4.41
16.94
24.63
4.29
16.94
24.63
0.897
0.899
7
67
Open mallee
woodlands and
sparse mallee
shrublands with a
tussock grass
understorey
1903.76
70.68
69.91
92.12
92.12
89.50
100.00
100.00
0.844
0.746
68
Open mallee
woodlands and
sparse mallee
shrublands with an
open shrubby
understorey
4230.37
25.08
19.25
38.56
54.94
24.32
44.54
58.83
0.942
0.954
69
Open mallee
woodlands and
sparse mallee
shrublands with a
dense shrubby
understorey
7826.96
37.25
16.06
24.97
31.45
24.87
37.91
44.14
0.960
0.939
70
Callitris open
woodlands
3974.27
0.51
17.93
35.36
41.09
17.70
35.07
40.83
0.953
0.953
71
Casuarina and
Allocasuarina open
woodlands with a
tussock grass
understorey
4922.71
1.13
21.28
42.95
50.34
20.70
42.46
49.75
0.940
0.919
72
Casuarina and
Allocasuarina open
woodlands with a
hummock grass
understorey
72578.56
0.01
0.05
0.78
1.50
0.05
0.78
1.50
0.986
0.985
73
Casuarina and
Allocasuarina open
woodlands with a
chenopod shrub
understorey
12640.35
0.01
13.44
24.60
33.09
13.54
24.73
32.47
0.956
0.955
74
Casuarina and
Allocasuarina open
woodlands with a
shrubby understorey
35594.76
1.49
2.50
8.56
14.38
2.31
7.86
13.08
0.967
0.968
75
Melaleuca open
woodlands
22952.87
16.74
26.50
45.91
55.09
30.91
52.35
61.31
0.944
0.936
76
Other open
woodlands
22584.7
2.19
20.21
38.71
49.21
20.78
38.62
49.52
0.946
0.946
77
Other sparse
shrublands and
sparse heathlands
30.54
17.19
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
0.864
0.884
8
Table S2. Ranks of the 75 vegetation communities with respect to the three measures of loss,
fragmentation and equality. Higher ranks indicate more loss, more fragmentation (higher contribution of
smaller patch sizes) and more equality.
NVIS
Community
code
Rank
Rank small
Rank
loss
patch
Gini
contribution
1
Cool temperate rainforest
45
43
48
2
Tropical or sub-tropical rainforest
8
6
7
3
Eucalyptus (+/- tall) open forest with a dense broad-leaved and/or tree-fern
23
4
6
understorey (wet sclerophyll)
4
Eucalyptus open forests with a shrubby understorey
22
12
12
5
Eucalyptus open forests with a grassy understorey
26
15
19
6
Warm Temperate Rainforest
44
46
33
7
Tropical Eucalyptus forest and woodlands with a tall annual grassy understorey
47
44
43
8
Eucalyptus woodlands with a shrubby understorey
14
18
23
9
Eucalyptus woodlands with a tussock grass understorey
31
9
18
10
Eucalyptus woodlands with a hummock grass understorey
66
50
55
11
Tropical mixed species forests and woodlands
75
16
20
12
Callitris forests and woodlands
21
22
28
13
Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) forests and woodlands
2
3
4
14
Other Acacia forests and woodlands
19
23
27
15
Melaleuca open forests and woodlands
46
71
39
16
Other forests and woodlands
38
32
38
17
Boulders/rock with algae, lichen or scattered plants, or alpine fjaeldmarks
74
60
70
18
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with hummock grass
62
54
53
19
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with tussock grass
33
35
37
20
Mulga (Acacia aneura) woodlands and shrublands +/- tussock grass +/- forbs
52
41
73
21
Other Acacia tall open shrublands and shrublands
42
40
47
22
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse shrublands with chenopods
59
49
51
23
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse shrublands with hummock grass
65
58
54
24
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse shrublands +/- tussock grass
40
37
59
25
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse shrublands with a shrubby understorey
76
77
68
26
Casuarina and Allocasuarina forests and woodlands
6
14
14
27
Mallee with hummock grass
36
47
58
28
Low closed forest or tall closed shrublands (including Acacia, Melaleuca and Banksia)
7
24
11
29
Mallee with a dense shrubby understorey
20
20
24
30
Heathlands
70
31
25
31
Saltbush and/or Bluebushshrublands
60
66
63
32
Other shrublands
13
13
22
33
Hummock grasslands
67
62
56
34
Mitchell grass (Astrebla) tussock grasslands
56
64
65
35
Blue grass (Dicanthium) and tall bunch grass (Chrysopogon) tussock grasslands
10
7
46
9
36
Temperate tussock grasslands
3
2
2
37
Other tussock grasslands
43
45
42
38
Wet tussock grassland with herbs, sedges or rushes, herblands or ferns
53
72
60
39
Mixed chenopod, samphire +/- forbs
35
53
57
40
Mangroves
41
26
26
41
Saline or brackish sedgelands or grasslands
18
11
8
42
Naturally bare, sand, rock, claypan, mudflat
39
63
41
43
Salt lakes and lagoons
49
75
72
44
Freshwater, dams, lakes, lagoons or aquatic plants
77
74
71
45
Mulga (Acacia aneura) open woodlands and sparse shrublands +/- tussock grass
55
39
61
46
Sea, estuaries (includes seagrass)
71
30
29
47
Eucalyptus open woodlands with shrubby understorey
32
36
36
48
Eucalyptus open woodlands with a grassy understorey
16
27
34
49
Melaleuca shrublands and open shrublands
34
42
32
50
Banksia woodlands
5
5
10
51
Mulga (Acacia aneura) woodlands and shrublands with hummock grass
64
52
77
52
Mulga (Acacia aneura) open woodlands and sparse shrublands with hummock grass
63
55
66
53
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with a shrubby understorey
50
48
21
54
Eucalyptus tall open forest with a fine-leaved shrubby understorey
30
28
15
55
Mallee with an open shrubby understorey
15
29
31
56
Eucalyptus (+/- low) open woodlands with a chenopod or samphire understorey
29
67
76
57
Lignum shrublands and wetlands
48
69
67
58
Leptospermum forests and woodlands
72
56
40
59
Eucalyptus woodlands with ferns, herbs, sedges, rushes or wet tussock grassland
11
19
5
60
Eucalyptus tall open forests and open forests with ferns, herbs, sedges, rushes or wet
24
8
13
tussock grasses
61
Mallee with a tussock grass understorey
1
1
1
62
Dry rainforest or vine thickets
12
34
9
63
Sedgelands, rushs or reeds
37
76
69
64
Other grasslands
54
38
50
65
Eucalyptus woodlands with a chenopod or samphire understorey
25
33
35
66
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee shrublands with a hummock grass
73
59
64
4
17
3
17
25
74
9
10
16
understorey
67
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee shrublands with a tussock grass
understorey
68
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee shrublands with an open shrubby
understorey
69
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee shrublands with a dense shrubby
understorey
70
Callitris open woodlands
61
68
52
71
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands with a tussock grass understorey
58
70
17
72
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands with a hummock grass understorey
68
57
44
73
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands with a chenopod shrub understorey
69
51
45
10
74
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands with a shrubby understorey
57
73
62
75
Melaleuca open woodlands
28
21
30
76
Other open woodlands
51
65
49
77
Other sparse shrublands and sparse heathlands
27
61
75
11
Table S3. Size of the patch at varying thresholds of cumulative extent for all 84 vegetation communities
(including water and cleared types; based on current conditions).
NVIS
Community
code
Patch size
Patch size
Patch size
Patch size
Patch size
at 10% of
at 25% of
at 50% of
at 75% of
at 95% of
cumulative
cumulative
cumulative
cumulative
cumulative
extent
extent
extent
extent
extent
(km2)
(km2)
(km2)
(km2)
(km2)
1
Cool temperate rainforest
0.09
0.96
39.25
403.21
441.86
2
Tropical or sub-tropical rainforest
0.12
1.01
14.97
137.52
513.51
3
Eucalyptus (+/- tall) open forest with a dense
0.03
0.23
3.35
46.03
528.18
0.15
1.94
33.71
1018.82
4717.19
0.25
4.01
114.73
1121
3838.53
0.07
1.12
66.21
284.29
320.13
191.21
1322.71
3874.67
18283.01
25083.13
2.85
43.24
1832.79
17382.08
23610.63
1.75
34.26
617.92
4628.25
17609.08
17.78
277.5
2694.46
14793.44
21203.09
broad-leaved and/or tree-fern understorey
(wet sclerophyll)
4
Eucalyptus open forests with a shrubby
understorey
5
Eucalyptus open forests with a grassy
understorey
6
Warm Temperate Rainforest
7
Tropical Eucalyptus forest and woodlands with
a tall annual grassy understorey
8
Eucalyptus woodlands with a shrubby
understorey
9
Eucalyptus woodlands with a tussock grass
understorey
10
Eucalyptus woodlands with a hummock grass
understorey
11
Tropical mixed species forests and woodlands
0.84
7.32
66.09
400.23
753.53
12
Callitris forests and woodlands
1.89
17.83
348.45
1709.49
1709.49
13
Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) forests and
0.14
0.75
4.86
20.68
90.9
woodlands
14
Other Acacia forests and woodlands
1.28
9.66
97.46
876.9
3507.79
15
Melaleuca open forests and woodlands
1.18
33.66
518.43
3314.25
8209.05
16
Other forests and woodlands
2.46
13.7
113.84
637.15
2058.65
17
Boulders/rock with algae, lichen or scattered
0.01
0.03
0.12
0.48
5.14
16.9
182.2
2056.61
26898.1
26898.1
2.43
19.7
131.92
536.35
1713.41
238.56
3192.98
18164.92
33715.07
103523.9
34.06
384.02
4028.82
29616.15
35818.23
plants, or alpine fjaeldmarks
18
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with
hummock grass
19
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with tussock
grass
20
Mulga (Acacia aneura) woodlands and
shrublands +/- tussock grass +/- forbs
21
Other Acacia tall open shrublands and
shrublands
12
22
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse
39.65
380
2266.35
8975.79
14502.69
59.56
377.24
2366.95
4109.57
6541.61
4.28
39.55
385.51
2375.89
5955.17
18.02
232.36
1127.89
1212.12
3279.81
0.13
0.79
21.03
206.62
770.85
shrublands with chenopods
23
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse
shrublands with hummock grass
24
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse
shrublands +/- tussock grass
25
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse
shrublands with a shrubby understorey
26
Casuarina and Allocasuarina forests and
woodlands
27
Mallee with hummock grass
28.13
529.76
7211.96
14426.05
24481.84
28
Low closed forest or tall closed shrublands
0.17
4.29
224.51
1705.53
2278.21
(including Acacia, Melaleuca and Banksia)
29
Mallee with a dense shrubby understorey
4.87
187.26
1920.74
5021.37
5867.48
30
Heathlands
0.13
1.28
20.82
301.17
450.24
31
Saltbush and/or Bluebushshrublands
105.9
1189.11
18273.69
42527.3
60287.8
32
Other shrublands
2.53
25.29
175.32
605.97
3119.51
33
Hummock grasslands
3342.76
116970.1
172674.5
172674.5
172674.5
34
Mitchell grass (Astrebla) tussock grasslands
54.93
397.23
3517.17
21465.24
56891.26
35
Blue grass (Dicanthium) and tall bunch grass
1.19
5.56
29.71
106.23
367.75
(Chrysopogon) tussock grasslands
36
Temperate tussock grasslands
0.02
0.13
0.98
5.49
43.11
37
Other tussock grasslands
6.79
51.21
478.94
1777.89
7713.19
38
Wet tussock grassland with herbs, sedges or
5.06
26.59
174.83
952.09
4461.3
rushes, herblands or ferns
39
Mixed chenopod, samphire +/- forbs
3.62
34.85
187.29
817.67
1830.18
40
Mangroves
0.16
1.02
4.28
12.62
59.97
41
Saline or brackish sedgelands or grasslands
0.04
0.21
1.13
5.47
14.43
42
Naturally bare, sand, rock, claypan, mudflat
0.3
1.69
23.68
234.15
603.06
43
Salt lakes and lagoons
28.93
256.49
1428.74
3362.91
5621.95
44
Freshwater, dams, lakes, lagoons or aquatic
0.28
2.73
47.14
224.83
1049.47
45.87
367.84
3705.56
16301.93
16301.93
plants
45
Mulga (Acacia aneura) open woodlands and
sparse shrublands +/- tussock grass
46
Sea, estuaries (includes seagrass)
3.87
62.81
213.48
928.2
928.2
47
Eucalyptus open woodlands with shrubby
1.47
12.46
87.74
239.92
496.97
1.18
15.12
355.37
2367.93
5125.98
understorey
48
Eucalyptus open woodlands with a grassy
understorey
49
Melaleuca shrublands and open shrublands
0.28
2.13
52.21
280.48
615.73
50
Banksia woodlands
0.59
7.72
184.12
334.5
626.03
51
Mulga (Acacia aneura) woodlands and
87.06
276.9
1936.83
2824.46
2824.46
shrublands with hummock grass
13
52
Mulga (Acacia aneura) open woodlands and
37.61
78.12
208.11
254.63
510.85
2.83
13.45
48.61
114.93
282.87
0.01
0.07
1.68
37.8
135.43
sparse shrublands with hummock grass
53
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with a shrubby
understorey
54
Eucalyptus tall open forest with a fine-leaved
shrubby understorey
55
Mallee with an open shrubby understorey
0.72
30.47
546.2
1873.68
4289.96
56
Eucalyptus (+/- low) open woodlands with a
10.17
71.97
530.24
530.24
530.24
chenopod or samphire understorey
57
Lignum shrublands and wetlands
2.01
18.28
128.79
368.98
652.41
58
Leptospermum forests and woodlands
0.03
0.1
0.46
2.33
19.24
59
Eucalyptus woodlands with ferns, herbs,
0.05
0.34
5.12
62.86
377.41
0.11
1.34
34.78
340.33
3161.79
sedges, rushes or wet tussock grassland
60
Eucalyptus tall open forests and open forests
with ferns, herbs, sedges, rushes or wet
tussock grasses
61
Mallee with a tussock grass understorey
0.03
0.17
1.74
12.91
39.13
62
Dry rainforest or vine thickets
0.17
0.79
5.74
68.66
636.3
63
Sedgelands, rushs or reeds
0.17
1.12
11.88
137.76
705.34
64
Other grasslands
22.5
103.87
496.76
717.25
1305.66
65
Eucalyptus woodlands with a chenopod or
9.38
377.23
1932.61
4287.58
4287.58
22.7
99.18
228.29
723.7
1250.02
0.02
0.08
0.35
1.49
15.83
1.55
10.9
53.63
148.2
293.21
0.48
9.34
146.18
272.84
511.76
samphire understorey
66
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee
shrublands with a hummock grass understorey
67
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee
shrublands with a tussock grass understorey
68
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee
shrublands with an open shrubby understorey
69
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee
shrublands with a dense shrubby understorey
70
Callitris open woodlands
2.9
18.81
124.27
182.28
182.28
71
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands
2.96
14.67
91.69
189.76
527.22
1295.6
4939.54
4939.54
4939.54
4939.54
4.19
48.18
562.35
1333.34
1847.07
62.84
290.83
1273.73
2400.54
5055.01
with a tussock grass understorey
72
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands
with a hummock grass understorey
73
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands
with a chenopod shrub understorey
74
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands
with a shrubby understorey
75
Melaleuca open woodlands
0.93
6.25
43.84
208.27
638.69
76
Other open woodlands
1.74
14.24
102.38
512.36
1244.45
77
Other sparse shrublands and sparse heathlands
0.11
0.91
1.21
4.73
5.36
78
Regrowth or modified forests and woodlands
0.1
0.35
1.82
4.77
6.3
14
79
Regrowth or modified shrublands
0.11
0.21
0.57
1.27
2.85
80
Regrowth or modified graminoids
1.54
11.54
176.54
608.38
1347.96
81
Unclassified forest
0.02
0.05
0.13
0.4
1.76
82
Unclassified native vegetation
0.03
0.11
0.61
3.62
22.79
83
Cleared, non-native vegetation, buildings
51.64
8809.05
116377.8
173432
173432
84
Unknown/No data
0.15
1.3
16.53
145.03
478.69
15
Table S4. Size of the patch at varying thresholds of cumulative extent for all 75 vegetation communities
(based on 1750 conditions).
NVIS
Community
code
Patch size
Patch size
Patch size
Patch size
Patch size
at 10% of
at 25% of
at 50% of
at 75% of
at 95% of
cumulative
cumulative
cumulative
cumulative
cumulative
extent
extent
extent
extent
extent
(km2)
(km2)
(km2)
(km2)
(km2)
1
Cool temperate rainforest
0.08
1
46.3
441.95
449.16
2
Tropical or sub-tropical rainforest
0.4
5.56
89.34
713.11
1238.96
3
Eucalyptus (+/- tall) open forest with a
0.05
0.66
26.04
411.94
1453.34
0.45
6.7
111.93
3533.26
4753.55
0.52
12.08
310.93
3991.13
7725.28
0.08
1.66
66.61
284.03
347.2
192.42
1603.51
16479.02
27033.94
27033.94
11.71
130.04
3184.99
23610.63
49699.03
18.74
376.49
4747.46
30252.09
30252.09
17.71
277.36
2710.08
14646.44
21203.67
2.59
18.46
96.41
400.32
752.05
dense broad-leaved and/or tree-fern
understorey (wet sclerophyll)
4
Eucalyptus open forests with a shrubby
understorey
5
Eucalyptus open forests with a grassy
understorey
6
Warm Temperate Rainforest
7
Tropical Eucalyptus forest and woodlands
with a tall annual grassy understorey
8
Eucalyptus woodlands with a shrubby
understorey
9
Eucalyptus woodlands with a tussock grass
understorey
10
Eucalyptus woodlands with a hummock
grass understorey
11
Tropical mixed species forests and
woodlands
12
Callitris forests and woodlands
4.16
35.98
544.8
2755.34
2755.34
13
Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) forests and
12.14
60.1
294.51
895.6
2161.86
woodlands
14
Other Acacia forests and woodlands
2.43
19.14
124.6
853.13
3304.91
15
Melaleuca open forests and woodlands
1.31
30.83
399.91
3316.11
8475.38
16
Other forests and woodlands
2.8
15.89
134.79
686.77
2059.75
17
Boulders/rock with algae, lichen or
0.01
0.03
0.1
0.44
5.1
17.28
183.97
2058.06
16827.34
16827.34
3.39
24.68
145.16
546.16
2179.23
277.22
2458.78
18164.47
33716.04
103521.6
41.03
503.8
4226.98
29628.16
36916.36
scattered plants, or alpine fjaeldmarks
18
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with
hummock grass
19
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with
tussock grass
20
Mulga (Acacia aneura) woodlands and
shrublands +/- tussock grass +/- forbs
21
Other Acacia tall open shrublands and
16
shrublands
22
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse
40.06
379.97
2266.48
8742.63
14502.08
60.27
377.33
2253.19
4110.27
6541.97
5.74
45.67
379.64
2379.61
5955.33
4.16
90.53
586.37
1148.52
1324.65
0.3
2.77
58.12
376.59
1320.95
shrublands with chenopods
23
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse
shrublands with hummock grass
24
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse
shrublands +/- tussock grass
25
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse
shrublands with a shrubby understorey
26
Casuarina and Allocasuarina forests and
woodlands
27
Mallee with hummock grass
32.09
529.77
8089.32
14431.46
24456.87
28
Low closed forest or tall closed shrublands
0.92
20.28
196.26
1195.00
2212.74
(including Acacia, Melaleuca and Banksia)
29
Mallee with a dense shrubby understorey
33.95
848.39
2520.59
6244.52
19014.32
30
Heathlands
0.21
2.03
28.29
308.06
439.41
31
Saltbush and/or Bluebushshrublands
104.89
1197.1
18270.12
59981.12
59981.12
32
Other shrublands
10.7
76.85
537.32
3122.97
5203.82
33
Hummock grasslands
3197.17
117018.4
172556.5
172556.5
172556.5
34
Mitchell grass (Astrebla) tussock grasslands
54.87
384.26
2767.95
22067.2
56924.96
35
Blue grass (Dicanthium) and tall bunch grass
2.61
12.22
66.36
306.05
832.57
(Chrysopogon) tussock grasslands
36
Temperate tussock grasslands
2.62
45.13
250.87
655.88
980.87
37
Other tussock grasslands
7.07
53.34
555.84
1909.44
6660.35
38
Wet tussock grassland with herbs, sedges or
4.32
24.67
158
952.88
4461.04
rushes, herblands or ferns
39
Mixed chenopod, samphire +/- forbs
4.29
35.37
175.16
817.1
2682.78
40
Mangroves
0.19
1.28
5.31
18.46
101.91
41
Saline or brackish sedgelands or grasslands
0.07
0.37
2.11
10.11
43.08
42
Naturally bare, sand, rock, claypan, mudflat
0.34
1.76
23.24
207.11
608.34
43
Salt lakes and lagoons
23.54
208.1
1218.04
3365.14
5621.52
44
Freshwater, dams, lakes, lagoons or aquatic
0.27
1.98
39.41
368.78
1206.23
55.05
443.29
3776.2
15392.76
16301.23
plants
45
Mulga (Acacia aneura) open woodlands and
sparse shrublands +/- tussock grass
46
Sea, estuaries (includes seagrass)
8.02
62.85
217.06
928.53
928.53
47
Eucalyptus open woodlands with shrubby
1.83
16.4
85.15
241.5
513.43
2.82
30
506.31
5198.77
16762.61
understorey
48
Eucalyptus open woodlands with a grassy
understorey
49
Melaleuca shrublands and open shrublands
0.35
3.12
64.99
289.1
615.8
50
Banksia woodlands
9.45
205.11
857.44
1456.06
1456.06
51
Mulga (Acacia aneura) woodlands and
81.18
276.76
1936.86
2824.6
2824.6
17
shrublands with hummock grass
52
Mulga (Acacia aneura) open woodlands and
37.7
78.09
207.97
254.76
511.49
2.67
12.17
48.83
115.43
282.74
0.01
0.1
3.24
59.22
139.72
sparse shrublands with hummock grass
53
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with a
shrubby understorey
54
Eucalyptus tall open forest with a fineleaved shrubby understorey
55
Mallee with an open shrubby understorey
2.03
86.31
915.38
2570.98
4330.36
56
Eucalyptus (+/- low) open woodlands with a
14.54
66.01
530.54
530.54
530.54
chenopod or samphire understorey
57
Lignum shrublands and wetlands
2.01
18.12
128.89
368.98
652.41
58
Leptospermum forests and woodlands
0.03
0.1
0.49
2.17
15.5
59
Eucalyptus woodlands with ferns, herbs,
0.18
1.58
17.22
88.23
415.58
0.26
5.77
157.23
1064.77
4668.29
200.75
2152.04
6648.23
17703.44
17703.44
sedges, rushes or wet tussock grassland
60
Eucalyptus tall open forests and open
forests with ferns, herbs, sedges, rushes or
wet tussock grasses
61
Mallee with a tussock grass understorey
62
Dry rainforest or vine thickets
0.38
2.17
15.69
68.51
636.2
63
Sedgelands, rushs or reeds
0.17
0.98
9.02
102.27
521.14
64
Other grasslands
25.34
111.21
496.61
717.73
1305.62
65
Eucalyptus woodlands with a chenopod or
31.98
377.42
1932.12
2922.44
3070.73
22.73
98.98
228.17
722.30
1250.05
0.12
0.46
2.79
11.83
36.04
3.15
17.53
68.93
267.15
409.12
1.74
39.54
263.81
511.37
687.28
samphire understorey
66
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee
shrublands with a hummock grass
understorey
67
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee
shrublands with a tussock grass understorey
68
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee
shrublands with an open shrubby
understorey
69
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee
shrublands with a dense shrubby
understorey
70
Callitris open woodlands
2.81
18.81
124.09
182.28
182.28
71
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open
2.96
13.16
79.47
189.76
525.85
1296.22
4939.14
4939.14
4939.14
4939.14
4.26
48.12
562.49
1334.04
1847.27
woodlands with a tussock grass understorey
72
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open
woodlands with a hummock grass
understorey
73
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open
woodlands with a chenopod shrub
understorey
18
74
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open
61.15
254.53
1261.39
2400.54
5055.01
woodlands with a shrubby understorey
75
Melaleuca open woodlands
1.31
8.92
64.61
390.43
1548.93
76
Other open woodlands
1.94
15.14
102.47
511.56
1244.43
77
Other sparse shrublands and sparse
0.13
0.4
2.26
4.70
5.41
heathlands
78
Unclassified forest
0.02
0.06
0.14
0.50
3.9
79
Unclassified native vegetation
0.04
0.15
1.21
10.61
53.08
80
Unknown/No data
0.12
6.8
116.45
194.62
194.62
19
Table S5. Results of Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests to determine if the distributions of patch sizes for all 75
vegetation communities (based on pre-1750 conditions) differ from the current patch size distributions of
those communities.
NVIS
Community
D
P
code
Significant
difference
1
Cool temperate rainforest
0.039
<0.001
Yes
2
Tropical or sub-tropical rainforest
0.020
<0.001
Yes
3
Eucalyptus (+/- tall) open forest with a dense broad-leaved and/or tree-fern
0.009
<0.001
Yes
understorey (wet sclerophyll)
4
Eucalyptus open forests with a shrubby understorey
0.011
<0.001
Yes
5
Eucalyptus open forests with a grassy understorey
0.002
0.700
No
6
Warm Temperate Rainforest
0.003
0.999
No
7
Tropical Eucalyptus forest and woodlands with a tall annual grassy understorey
0.012
0.063
No
8
Eucalyptus woodlands with a shrubby understorey
0.050
<0.001
Yes
9
Eucalyptus woodlands with a tussock grass understorey
0.101
<0.001
Yes
10
Eucalyptus woodlands with a hummock grass understorey
0.009
0.032
Yes
11
Tropical mixed species forests and woodlands
0.049
<0.001
Yes
12
Callitris forests and woodlands
0.020
<0.001
Yes
13
Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) forests and woodlands
0.401
<0.001
Yes
14
Other Acacia forests and woodlands
0.024
<0.001
Yes
15
Melaleuca open forests and woodlands
0.003
0.213
No
16
Other forests and woodlands
0.025
<0.001
Yes
17
Boulders/rock with algae, lichen or scattered plants, or alpine fjaeldmarks
0.013
0.659
No
18
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with hummock grass
0.010
0.013
Yes
19
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with tussock grass
0.029
<0.001
Yes
20
Mulga (Acacia aneura) woodlands and shrublands +/- tussock grass +/- forbs
0.166
<0.001
Yes
21
Other Acacia tall open shrublands and shrublands
0.098
<0.001
Yes
22
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse shrublands with chenopods
0.013
0.214
No
23
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse shrublands with hummock grass
0.010
0.964
No
24
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse shrublands +/- tussock grass
0.057
<0.001
Yes
25
Acacia (+/- low) open woodlands and sparse shrublands with a shrubby
0.275
<0.001
Yes
understorey
26
Casuarina and Allocasuarina forests and woodlands
0.102
<0.001
Yes
27
Mallee with hummock grass
0.093
<0.001
Yes
28
Low closed forest or tall closed shrublands (including Acacia, Melaleuca and
0.013
<0.001
Yes
Banksia)
29
Mallee with a dense shrubby understorey
0.023
<0.001
Yes
30
Heathlands
0.052
<0.001
Yes
31
Saltbush and/or Bluebushshrublands
0.007
0.338
No
32
Other shrublands
0.069
<0.001
Yes
33
Hummock grasslands
0.007
0.667
No
20
34
Mitchell grass (Astrebla) tussock grasslands
0.058
<0.001
Yes
35
Blue grass (Dicanthium) and tall bunch grass (Chrysopogon) tussock grasslands
0.157
<0.001
Yes
36
Temperate tussock grasslands
0.202
<0.001
Yes
37
Other tussock grasslands
0.014
<0.001
Yes
38
Wet tussock grassland with herbs, sedges or rushes, herblands or ferns
0.025
<0.001
Yes
39
Mixed chenopod, samphire +/- forbs
0.037
<0.001
Yes
40
Mangroves
0.007
0.189
No
41
Saline or brackish sedgelands or grasslands
0.029
0.003
Yes
42
Naturally bare, sand, rock, claypan, mudflat
0.011
0.001
Yes
43
Salt lakes and lagoons
0.172
<0.001
Yes
44
Freshwater, dams, lakes, lagoons or aquatic plants
0.047
<0.001
Yes
45
Mulga (Acacia aneura) open woodlands and sparse shrublands +/- tussock grass
0.077
<0.001
Yes
46
Sea, estuaries (includes seagrass)
0.007
0.982
No
47
Eucalyptus open woodlands with shrubby understorey
0.036
<0.001
Yes
48
Eucalyptus open woodlands with a grassy understorey
0.138
<0.001
Yes
49
Melaleuca shrublands and open shrublands
0.028
<0.001
Yes
50
Banksia woodlands
0.169
<0.001
Yes
51
Mulga (Acacia aneura) woodlands and shrublands with hummock grass
0.395
<0.001
Yes
52
Mulga (Acacia aneura) open woodlands and sparse shrublands with hummock
0.067
0.944
No
grass
53
Eucalyptus low open woodlands with a shrubby understorey
0.115
<0.001
Yes
54
Eucalyptus tall open forest with a fine-leaved shrubby understorey
<0.001
1
No
55
Mallee with an open shrubby understorey
0.150
<0.001
Yes
56
Eucalyptus (+/- low) open woodlands with a chenopod or samphire understorey
0.284
<0.001
Yes
57
Lignum shrublands and wetlands
0.075
<0.001
Yes
58
Leptospermum forests and woodlands
0.005
0.999
No
59
Eucalyptus woodlands with ferns, herbs, sedges, rushes or wet tussock
0.113
<0.001
Yes
0.011
<0.001
Yes
grassland
60
Eucalyptus tall open forests and open forests with ferns, herbs, sedges, rushes
or wet tussock grasses
61
Mallee with a tussock grass understorey
0.147
<0.001
Yes
62
Dry rainforest or vine thickets
0.033
<0.001
Yes
63
Sedgelands, rushs or reeds
0.027
<0.001
Yes
64
Other grasslands
0.021
0.277
No
65
Eucalyptus woodlands with a chenopod or samphire understorey
0.126
<0.001
Yes
66
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee shrublands with a hummock grass
0.039
0.902
No
0.204
<0.001
Yes
0.250
<0.001
Yes
0.043
<0.001
Yes
understorey
67
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee shrublands with a tussock grass
understorey
68
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee shrublands with an open shrubby
understorey
69
Open mallee woodlands and sparse mallee shrublands with a dense shrubby
understorey
21
70
Callitris open woodlands
0.014
0.997
No
71
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands with a tussock grass understorey
0.171
<0.001
Yes
72
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands with a hummock grass
0.038
0.999
No
0.015
0.686
No
understorey
73
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands with a chenopod shrub
understorey
74
Casuarina and Allocasuarina open woodlands with a shrubby understorey
0.021
0.937
No
75
Melaleuca open woodlands
0.011
0.175
No
76
Other open woodlands
0.018
0.019
Yes
77
Other sparse shrublands and sparse heathlands
0.114
0.302
No
22
Appendix S2.Metric comparisons and supporting code
Comparison between our metrics and traditional metrics of fragmentation
We tested the correlation of our new patch contribution measure with loss of extent and with a more
traditional edge metric of fragmentation(Porensky & Young 2013). The edge metric was calculated as:
F= (A0/A1) / (E0/E1)2,
where:
E0 = edge length original,
E1 = edge length current,
A0 = area original,
A1 = area current,
F =fragmentation quotient where <1 is better, 1 represents no change, and >1 is worse.
As expected, both fragmentation measures were correlated with the total loss of extent per vegetation
community (Figure S2a), but there was no relationship between the edge metric and our new patch
contribution approach (linear regression: y = 0.0084x + 0.027, R2 = 0.005). This indicates that whilst many
traditional fragmentation metrics are redundant due to high correlation with each other as well as with
overall ecosystem extent, our new patch contribution approach offers a new account of fragmentation and
ecosystem vulnerability that allows communities sensitive to loss of small patches to be identified. Many of
these communities might be ignored by traditional fragmentation metrics.
Broadly, there are two factors missing from current measures of fragmentation to allow them to be useful
for decision-making: (a) a measure of inequality of the patch size distribution, and (b) establishment of and
comparison with baseline or historical distribution. Because previous accounts of fragmentation did not
distinguish between natural and anthropogenic fragmentation (Riitters et al. 2000), they ignore the fact
that some vegetation communities naturally occur in small patches with the species within them are
adapted to this (e.g. high dispersal abilities; Bohrer, Nathan & Volis 2005; Trakhtenbrot et al. 2005; Spiegel
& Nathan 2007), and that these communities often have higher resilience to fragmentation than other
communities(but see Teller, Miller & Shea 2015). Relative patch inequality measures might provide
quantitative data to contribute to criterion (E) of the Red List of Ecosystems and could assist with
estimating likely ecosystem collapses if linked with baseline historical data (Lohmann 2009; Keith et al.
2013; Maron, Rhodes & Gibbons 2013). Because our Gini metric and the patch contribution measure
compare current conditions with a baseline that represents natural community characteristics, they avoid
issues of correlation with current community extent commonly experienced when using many
fragmentation metrics (for a review see Wang, Blanchet & Koper 2014).
23
(a)
(b)
Figure S2. Relative change in vegetation community extent versus (a) a traditional edge metric measuring
fragmentation (Fragmentation quotient,F= (A0/A1) / (E0/E1)2) and (b) total change in contribution of patches
<5000ha. There is a negative relationship between the edge metric and extent (linear regression: y = –0.01x
+ 1.06, R2 = 0.3), and between the measure of change in relative contribution of small patches and loss of
extent (linear regression: y = –0.005x + 0.55, R2 = 0.7). There is no relationship between the edge metric
and the small patches measure (linear regression: y = 0.0084x + 0.027, R2 = 0.005).
24
Supporting Code
We provide code and associated csv files for calculating the patch size threshold metric (for a threshold of
5000ha) and the Gini metric here:
https://www.dropbox.com/sh/xl3ixic2k2dq9fb/AACFHmVQ5-CUQPF-zsH92tk7a?dl=0
################################################
#######Gini coefficient for patch fragmentation########
################################################
#Code written by Ayesha Tulloch and Megan Barnes May 5 2014
#To accompany the paper:
#Understanding the importance of small patches of habitat for conservation
#Ayesha I.T. Tulloch, Megan Barnes, Jeremy Ringma, Richard A. Fuller and James E.M. Watson
#Journal of Applied Ecology (2015)
#To calculate this metric, data must be sorted into one csv file per habitat,
#Columns of csv file need to include a row for each patch + the area of the patch
#Columns are sorted by patch area, and cumulative area is calculated for each row
#Gini coefficient is the area under the curve
###This code is written to accompany the following csv files derived (see main text for methods) from the
###Australian Government's NVIS Version 4.1 spatial data (http://www.environment.gov.au/):
# 1.
Present Major Vegetation Subgroups: NVISpatchsize_extant.csv
# 2.
Estimated Pre1750 Major Vegetation Subgroups: NVISpatchsize_1750.csv
###This code produces:
# - Individual habitat files subset from a larger file with all habitats (and associated areas and perimeters of
patches)
# - 2 final output files: 1 for current patch metrics, 1 for past patch metrics
#--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------#1. Create individual habitat files from NVIS multi-habitat polygon layer
#--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------###Import libraries
library(foreign)
###Set working directory
getwd()
setwd() #Insert working directory here
wd<-setwd() ##EDIT THIS TO YOUR WORKING DIRECTORY
###Read in csv files (all NVIS vegetation communities, 1 row per patch)
patch_extant<-read.csv("~/NVISpatchsize_extant.csv")
25
patch_1750<-read.csv("~/NVISpatchsize_1750.csv")
###Extract unique elements of the dataframe to determine the number of habitats that will be subsetted
##Extant
names(patch_extant)
namestext_ext<-unique(patch_extant$MVS_NAME) #creates a list of all the habitat text names
namescode_ext<-unique(patch_extant$GRIDCODE) #create a list of all the habitat grid codes
namescode_ext[1] #finds the first element of the file path
k<-length(namescode_ext)
k<-1
##1750
names(patch_1750)
namestext_1750<-unique(patch_1750$MVS_NAME) #creates a list of all the habitat text names
namescode_1750<-unique(patch_1750$GRIDCODE) #create a list of all the habitat grid codes
namescode_1750[1] #finds the first element of the file path
j<-length(namescode_1750)
j<-1
###loop through csv datasets of all habitats to create subset files by habitat
##Extant
for(i in 1:k){ #make this the number of files you have in the directory
name<- namescode_ext[i] #create the name
tempdata<- patch_extant[which(patch_extant$GRIDCODE == name),]
o <- order(tempdata$Area, decreasing=FALSE) #this sorts the habitat subset by increasing area
tempsort<- as.data.frame(tempdata[o,])
filename<-paste0("~/Subset_habitats_extant/", name,"csv")
write.csv(tempsort, file=filename)
}
##1750
for(i in 1:j){ #make this the number of files you have in the directory
name<- namescode_1750[i] #create the name
tempdata<- patch_1750[which(patch_1750$GRIDCODE == name),]
o <- order(tempdata$Area, decreasing=FALSE) #this sorts the habitat subset by increasing area
tempsort<- as.data.frame(tempdata[o,])
filename<-paste0("~/Subset_habitats_1750/", name,"csv")
write.csv(tempsort, file=filename)
}
#-------------------------------------------------------------------#2. Calculate current Gini coefficient for each habitat
#-------------------------------------------------------------------###first list the files you want (1 for each habitat):
##Extant
habitats_ext<- list.files(path=file.path(wd,'Subset_habitats_extant'), pattern="csv",full.names=TRUE)
26
habitats_ext
habitats_ext[1] #finds the first element of the file path
m<-length(habitats_ext)
names_habsext<-list.files(path=file.path(wd,'Subset_habitats_extant'), pattern="csv",full.names=FALSE)
###Create the final dataframe with $ column heading but no rows as defined by (0)
Metrics_current<-data.frame(NVIScode=character(0), Habitat=character(0), cumarea5000ha= numeric(0),
prop5000ha=numeric(0), number5000ha=numeric(0), Gini_current=numeric(0))
###Loop through csv output files
##Extant
for(i in 1:m){ #make this the number of files you have in the directory
temp<- read.csv(habitats_ext[i])
tothabarea<-sum(temp$Area)
totpatches<-nrow(temp)
temp<-within(temp, proparea<-Area/tothabarea)
#calculate the proportional area of a patch
temp<-within(temp, cum_proparea<-cumsum(proparea)) #calculate the cumulative proportional area
represented by a given set of patches ranked by area
temp<-within(temp, proppatches<-Patch_rank/nrow(temp)) #calculate the cumulative proportion of
patches
###replace file name with name for habitat (here NVIS code x)
name1<-names_habsext[i]
NVIScode<-gsub(".csv","",name1)
dataframe<-data.frame(NVIScode)
dataframe$Habitat<-temp[paste(1),"MVS_NAME"] #what is the habitat
##A. Patch Contribution Metric - Threshold 5000ha (i.e. 50km2)
xspot<-which(temp$Area<50) #get all the rows that have a value of <50km2 (i.e.5000ha) in the Area
column
maxxspot<-length(xspot) #find the last row in the rows that have that Area
dataframe$cumarea5000ha<-temp[paste(maxxspot),"cum_proparea"]
dataframe$prop5000ha<-temp[length(xspot),"proppatches"]
dataframe$number5000ha<-temp[length(xspot),"Patch_rank"]
##B. Gini Metric of Patch Inequality
#create new vector x2-x1
temp<-within(temp, gini_x2x1<-c(0,diff(proppatches))) #need to add a 0 to the vector as it is missing a
value due to the differencing of rows
#create new vector y1+y2
r<-nrow(temp)
vector2<-vector(mode="numeric")
for(q in 1:r-1){
vector1<-temp$cum_proparea
vector2[q]<-vector1[q]+vector1[q+1]
27
}
temp<-within(temp, gini_y1y2<-c(0,vector2)) #need to add a 0 to the vector as it is missing a value due to
the summing of rows
#createmultiplied vector (x2-x1)*(y1+y2)
temp<-within(temp, gini_multy2y1x2x1<-gini_y1y2*gini_x2x1)
#CalculateGiniIndex
Gini<-1-sum(temp$gini_multy2y1x2x1)
#Paste data intodataframe
dataframe$Gini_current<-paste(Gini)
##C. Add habitat row to dataframe
Metrics_current<- rbind(Metrics_current, dataframe) #adds each dataframe value as a new row
}
##Output file path
expPath1<-"~/Metrics_current.csv"
##Export table
write.table(Metrics_current, expPath1, sep=",", row.names=FALSE)
#-------------------------------------------------------------------#3. Calculate 1750s Gini coefficient for each habitat
#-------------------------------------------------------------------###first list the files you want:
##1750
habitats_past<- list.files(path=file.path(wd,'Subset_habitats_1750'), pattern="csv",full.names=TRUE)
habitats_past
habitats_past[1] #finds the first element of the file path
n<-length(habitats_past)
names_habspast<-list.files(path=file.path(wd,'Subset_habitats_1750'), pattern="csv",full.names=FALSE)
###Create the final dataframe with $ column heading but no rows as defined by (0)
Metrics_past<-data.frame(NVIScodep=character(0), Habitatp=character(0), cumarea5000hap= numeric(0),
prop5000hap=numeric(0), number5000hap=numeric(0), Gini_past=numeric(0))
#loop through csv output files
for(i in 1:n){ #make this the number of files you have in the directory
temp<- read.csv(habitats_past[i])
tothabarea<-sum(temp$Area)
totpatches<-nrow(temp)
temp<-within(temp, proparea<-Area/tothabarea)
#calculate the proportional area of a patch
28
temp<-within(temp, cum_proparea<-cumsum(proparea)) #calculate the cumulative proportional area
represented by a given set of patches ranked by area
temp<-within(temp, proppatches<-Patch_rank/nrow(temp)) #calculate the cumulative proportion of
patches
###replace file name with name for habitat (here NVIS code x)
name1<-names_habspast[i]
NVIScode<-gsub(".csv","",name1)
dataframe2<-data.frame(NVIScode)
dataframe2$Habitat<-temp[paste(1),"MVS_NAME"] #what is the habitat
##A. Patch Contribution Metric - Threshold 5000ha (i.e. 50km2)
xspot<-which(temp$Area<50) #get all the rows that have a value of <50km2 (i.e.5000ha) in the Area
column
maxxspot<-length(xspot) #find the last row in the rows that have that Area
dataframe2$cumarea5000ha<-temp[paste(maxxspot),"cum_proparea"]
dataframe2$prop5000ha<-temp[length(xspot),"proppatches"]
dataframe2$number5000ha<-temp[length(xspot),"Patch_rank"]
##B. Gini Metric of Patch Inequality
#create new vector x2-x1
temp<-within(temp, gini_x2x1<-c(0,diff(proppatches))) #need to add a 0 to the vector as it is missing a
value due to the differencing of rows
#create new vector y1+y2
r<-nrow(temp)
vector2<-vector(mode="numeric")
for(q in 1:r-1){
vector1<-temp$cum_proparea
vector2[q]<-vector1[q]+vector1[q+1]
}
temp<-within(temp, gini_y1y2<-c(0,vector2)) #need to add a 0 to the vector as it is missing a value due to
the summing of rows
#createmultiplied vector (x2-x1)*(y1+y2)
temp<-within(temp, gini_multy2y1x2x1<-gini_y1y2*gini_x2x1)
#CalculateGiniIndex
Gini<-1-sum(temp$gini_multy2y1x2x1)
#Paste data intodataframe
dataframe2$Gini_past<-paste(Gini)
##C. Add habitat row to dataframe
Metrics_past<- rbind(Metrics_past, dataframe2) #adds each dataframe value as a new row
}
29
##Output file path
expPath2<-"~/Metrics_past.csv"
##Export table
write.table(Metrics_past, expPath2, sep=",", row.names=FALSE)
30
Additional references
Bohrer, G.I.L., Nathan, R.A.N. & Volis, S. (2005) Effects of long-distance dispersal for metapopulation
survival and genetic structure at ecological time and spatial scales. Journal of Ecology,93, 10291040.
Keith, D.A., Rodríguez, J.P., Rodríguez-Clark, K.M., Nicholson, E., Aapala, K., Alonso, A., Asmussen, M.,
Bachman, S., Basset, A. & Barrow, E.G. (2013) Scientific foundations for an IUCN Red List of
Ecosystems. PloS one,8, e62111.
Lohmann, L. (2009) Toward a different debate in environmental accounting: The cases of carbon and cost–
benefit. Accounting, Organizations and Society,34, 499-534.
Maron, M., Rhodes, J.R. & Gibbons, P. (2013) Calculating the benefit of conservation actions. Conservation
Letters,6, 359-367.
Porensky, L.M. & Young, T.P. (2013) Edge-Effect Interactions in Fragmented and Patchy Landscapes.
Conservation Biology,27, 509-519.
Riitters, K., Wickham, J., O'Neill, R., Jones, B. & Smith, E. (2000) Global-scale patterns of forest
fragmentation. Conservation Ecology,4, 3.
Spiegel, O. & Nathan, R. (2007) Incorporating dispersal distance into the disperser effectiveness framework:
frugivorous birds provide complementary dispersal to plants in a patchy environment. Ecology
Letters,10, 718-728.
Teller, B.J., Miller, A.D. & Shea, K. (2015) Conservation of passively dispersed organisms in the context of
habitat degradation and destruction. Journal of Applied Ecology,52, 514-521.
Trakhtenbrot, A., Nathan, R., Perry, G. & Richardson, D.M. (2005) The importance of long-distance dispersal
in biodiversity conservation. Diversity and Distributions,11, 173-181.
Wang, X., Blanchet, F.G. & Koper, N. (2014) Measuring habitat fragmentation: An evaluation of landscape
pattern metrics. Methods in Ecology and Evolution,5, 634-646.
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Appendix S3.Characterizing community change
We characterised NVIS vegetation communities by the combination of their current pattern, loss of
extent, change in the contribution of small patches, and change in patch inequality (Table S5). In doing
so, we were able to derive some broad recommendations for conservation actions addressing different
kinds of loss in different communities (Table S5).
Table S6.Characteristics of loss and fragmentation of vegetation communities in Australia.
Process of loss/
fragmentation
Current
pattern
Little loss or
fragmentation
Similar to Small
original
extent
and
configuration
Loss of small
patches +
fragmentation of
large patches
Fragmentation
of small patches
Less
patches
Loss of a few
small patches
only
Edge removal
and loss of small
patches
Fragmentation
of all patch sizes
(patches smaller,
unequal)
Loss of
extent1
Change in
contribution of
small patches
=
Change in
Example vegetation
patch
communities in this study
inequality 2
=
Hummock grasslands;
Eucalyptus low open woodlands
with hummock grass;
Callitris open woodlands;
Saltbush and/or
Bluebushshrublands;
Casuarina and Allocasuarina
open woodlands with a
hummock grass understorey
↑
Eucalyptus low open woodlands
with a shrubby understorey
Conservation
implications
and actions
Low concern
Low concern
Small
=
Smaller
Small
small
patches
Less small Small
patches
=
↓
↓ small
patches
↑
Mulga (Acacia aneura)
woodlands and shrublands with
hummock grass
No examples
Smaller
Small
small
(7%)
patches
Many
Small
small and
large
patches
↓ small
patches
↓
Sedgelands, rushes or reeds
Conserve
large patches
↑
=
Conserve
small and
large patches
↑
↑
Mulga (Acacia aneura) open
woodlands and sparse
shrublands +/- tussock grass;
Eucalyptus low open woodlands
with tussock grass;
Other grasslands
Mangroves
Heathlands
Fragmentation
Many
of large patches small
(patches smaller, patches
more equal)
Small
32
Low concern
Low concern
Conserve
small patches
Edge removal
from all patches
Large and
small
patches
Loss of small
Many
patches
large, few
small
patches
Fragmentation
Many
of large patches, medium
loss of small
patches
patches
Fragmentation
Many
of large patches, small
edge removal
patches
from small
patches
Double
Many
jeopardy: loss of small
large patches +
patches
small patches
Large
=
↑
Dry rainforest or vine thickets
Conserve
small and
large patches
Conserve
large patches
Medium ↓ small
to Large patches
↓
Eucalyptus (+/- low) open
woodlands with a chenopod or
samphire understorey
Large
↓ small
patches
↑
Casuarina and Allocasuarina
open woodlands with a tussock
grass understorey
Conserve
medium to
large patches
Large
↑ small
patches
=
Blue grass (Dicanthium) and tall
bunch grass (Chrysopogon)
tussock grasslands
Conserve
small patches
Large
↑ small
patches
↑
Mallee with a tussock grass
understorey;
Temperate tussock grasslands;
Brigalow forests and woodlands;
Banksia woodlands;
Tropical or sub-tropical
rainforest;
Open mallee woodlands and
sparse mallee shrublands with a
dense shrubby understorey
High concernconserve
small and
large patches
1. Small represent less than 5% change except where indicated, medium represents 10 to 20% change, large represents >20%
2. ↑represents increased equality (negative Gini = more equitably distributed patches), ↓represents increased equality
(positive Gini), = represents little or no change.
33