Theory of Margin and the Value of Education for Older Adults in Positive Aging
Carol Donlon
Colorado State University
EDAE 624
March 18, 2012
Jacqueline McGuinty, M.Ed.
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Theory of Margin and the Value of Education for Older Adults in Positive Aging
In selecting a researcher or topic to consider for my individual paper, I knew
immediately that it had to be Howard McClusky and his Theory of Margin. Prior to this
course, I had never heard of the man or his theory, but once I did, I found myself on a
journey to explore further. I started this process prior to considering this assignment. As
I learned more, I felt as if I knew McClusky very well. His life, theories and humanistic
style of teaching, resonated deeply with me.
In the Theory of Margin, as introduced by (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner,
2007), McClusky talks about the load of life, which uses up energy and power which we
need to deal with our load. “ As Hiemstra (1993, p. 42) observes, adult students’ first
encounter with McClusky’s theory is often ‘an epiphany in terms of their own life
circumstances’ (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, 2007, p. 95). It certainly was for me!
I could see the relevance of the theory in my own life, the lives of others, adult learners
and in particular the lives of older adults. I could also immediately see the value in
McClusky’s philosophy, theory, humanistic approach and education in general, in
helping adults to experience positive aging.
According to Howard McClusky, “adulthood is a time of growth, change, and
integration in which one constantly seeks balance between the amount of energy
needed and the amount available” (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, 2007, p. 93). This
is especially true when experiencing the shift of power and load during older adulthood.
Immediately upon reading about the Theory of Margin, I could see the potential of
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education to increase older adults’ power and as such their margin, so that they may
better cope, thrive and reach their potential.
In this paper I will synthesize McClusky’s theory of margin, the value of
education and positive aging. I propose that education can increase margin in older
adults and as such, promote positive aging.
Theory of Margin
Margin is “…the ratio between the load (L) of life, which dissipates energy, and
the power (P) of life, which allows one to deal with the load” (Merriam, Caffarella,
Baumgartner, 2007, p. 93). Hiemstra (1993) indicates that load can consist of external
factors such as family responsibilities, work, community and social demands as well as
internal factors such as one’s expectations and goals. Self concept can also be an
internal load factor. According to McClusky (1963) power can also be external such as
having economic stability, social connections and family support, as well as internal
such as having skills, resiliency, physical health and coping abilities. “Margin can be
increased by reducing load or increasing power” (McClusky, 1963, p. 2). I see the
potential of education to play a role in both the reduction of load and in increasing
power.
Margin of Needs to Deal with Load
According to the theory of margin, “…older people are constantly engaged in a
struggle to maintain the margin of energy and power that they have enjoyed in earlier
years” (McClusky, 1971, p. 1). In order to deal with the changing balance of load and
power and the transitions associated with aging such as retirement, health issues, and
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economic factors, older adults have a number of needs. These can be categorized
according to a hierarchy of five educational needs, similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs as seen in the diagram below.
Hierarchy of Educational Needs of the Aging Adult
(Main, 1979, p. 26)
Coping Needs
McClusky identified 5 categories of need that like Maslow’s theory can be placed
in a hierarchy. In Maslow’s theory it starts with the physiological needs for survival such
as food and shelter. For McClusky’s hierarchy, it starts with coping. Similar to Maslow’s
physiological needs, McClusky’s coping needs must be addressed first, in order to free
one to pursue higher level needs. Survival needs such as housing, food, health care
and daily living are included in McClusky’s first tier. As people age, they face a number
of changes that cause them to revisit these needs. Education can play a vital role in
coping and utilizing resources that can lighten load and increase power. Education on
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how to maintain health, financial and legal matters, understanding changing roles and
relationships, and memory enhancement can be valuable. Basic education and literacy
may be needed along with computer training in order to be able to function in today’s
high technology, rapidly changing world.
Older adults may benefit from learning what their options are for suitable
housing, and health care. A large home with property to be maintained and requiring a
fair commute to community and health services may not be feasible in the long run.
Educational programs can provide information to consider in looking at options and in
planning where to live in the short term and in the long term. Depending on health,
transportation and support available, it may be helpful to consider living in areas that
provide community social engagement, entertainment, access to shopping and health
centers, as well as potential employment if wanted or needed.
Education can be instrumental in understanding what normal changes occur with
aging. This can include examining one’s attitude and expectations about aging and
uncovering biases that can be limiting. For instance, there is a common belief that older
adults can’t learn due to diminishing memory, declining brain cells and inability to
change. If one expects that to be the case, and they stop learning and keeping their
brain active, it may become a self-fulfilling prophecy. “Some of the decline attributed to
aging may therefore reflect not aging per se but factors much more within people’s
control” (Begley, 2006, p. 1). Education can be utilized to not only keep the brain sharp,
learn coping and new skills, but also to inform people about the realities of how to
preserve and enhance cognitive functions. As reported by the AARP (2006), the Dana
Alliance for Brain Initiatives has shown that “learning new things or pursuing activities
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that are intellectually stimulating, may strengthen brain-cell networks and help preserve
mental functions” (p. 8).
Expressive Needs
Adults engage in learning opportunities for a number of reasons including for the
pure joy of it. Many older adults have expressive needs that may include, playing an
instrument, acting in play, singing, art work, exploring a hobby. “There is a large domain
of unexpressed and underexpressed talent and interest which, if properly cultivated,
could be activated to enrich one’s living” (McClusky, 1971, p. 4). These activities are not
only enjoyable and enriching, they also address some of the negative aspects and
stereotypes typically associated with aging, such as disengagement, physical and
mental decline, isolation, and being viewed as consumers not contributors. This brings
us to our next need – contributive.
Contributive Needs
As people age, their roles and responsibilities may shift. They may be free from
the caretaking of young children and from work responsibilities if they have retired. This
may provide more power to explore expressive needs, however, for many that is not
enough. They still have a need to be needed and valued. The need to contribute can be
met in a wide variety of ways such as volunteering, mentoring, caretaking of children
and continuing to work. Some consider encore careers. Not surprising with many feeling
the need to contribute, helping professions such as teaching and counseling, are
popular encore careers. Education can assist older adults in exploring their interests
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and options to contribute. This can involve exploring volunteer opportunities, encore
careers, and attending pre and post retirement workshops.
Influence Needs
According to McClusky (1971) older adults may lose some of their power through
lower incomes, health issues and other factors. As a society we have tended to view
older adults as having less to offer in terms of skills and abilities and there has been an
expectation of disengagement and decline. However, as McClusky states although they
“may be less powerful, they are not powerless…older persons have a need to become
agents of social change, and therefore a need for that kind of educational experience
which will enable them effectively and responsibly to assume this role” (McClusky,
1971, p. 5).
McClusky views education as being a means to help older adults so that they
are contributing, influencing and doing for themselves and others rather than submitting
to having things done for them. To me, this is what education is all about - empowering
people so that they may live well. I agree with the statement that “adult education is
concerned not with preparing people for life, but rather with helping people to live more
successfully” (Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982, p.9).
Educational programs can help older adults to maintain their power to influence
their own lives and those in society. This is opposite to the common expectation of
disengagement as people age, as it promotes participation and engagement. Education
pertaining to volunteerism, pre-retirement, second careers, politics and social change
can be helpful to meet contributive needs. To combat negative attitudes and beliefs,
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educational programs are needed to “… help in shedding the self-hatred caused by
stereotypes and the prevailing attitudes of society at large…older people must be led
beyond passivity and given the option of second careers and new opportunities for
genuine participation, regardless of age” (Moody, 1976, p. 8).
Transcendence Needs
McClusky believes in the vast potential of older adults to continue to grow,
develop and reach their potential and that education can play a role “…in creating
margins of power for the attainment and maintenance of well-being, and continuing
growth toward self-fulfillment” (McClusky, 1971, p. 2). Educational programs that meet
the needs mentioned in this paper can assist older adults to have the margin needed to
reach this potential. “Through guided exploration, they can be helped to understand the
criteria by which successful lives are measured and to consider their own level of
satisfaction” (Peterson, 1983, p. 139).
Power Factors and the Role of Education
One way to increase the margin needed to be able to meet load requirements, is
to increase power. According to McClusky, power factors include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Physical – strength, stamina, energy, and health.
Social – ability to relate to others.
Mental – ability to think and reason.
Economic – money, position, and influence.
Skills – what an individual knows how to do.
(McClusky,1963, p. 2)
Education can play a vital role in increasing power in all five factors. For instance,
education programs can provide older adults with strategies to maintain physical health
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and well being. These include courses pertaining to nutrition, exercise, alternative
health care, maintaining a healthy body weight, active living, stress management and
the prevention and control of disease. The social aspects and ability to relate to others
can be aided through workshops, recreational and leisure activities and the act of
attending adult education classes and seminars.
Education can enhance mental abilities. Neuroscience is revealing the many
benefits of stimulating the brain. AARP (2006) reports that researchers with the Dana
Alliance for Brain Initiatives, have found that through learning, brain function can not
only be maintained, it can be stimulated to form new neural connections. “Many studies
have shown that the brain remains capable of regrowth and of learning and retaining
new facts and skills throughout life, especially for people who get regular exercise and
frequent intellectual stimulation” (Vierck, n.d. p. 2). The act of learning stimulates the
brain. Educational programs that develop critical thinking, problem solving and memory
enhancement can also be valuable in maintaining and enhancing mental abilities.
One way that older adults may lose power is through diminishing financial
resources. In fact, many will need to continue working past the typical retirement age,
due to inadequate resources to sustain themselves after retirement. Educational
programs that examine means to reduce costs, plan for retirement and explore encore
careers and part time employment, can be instrumental in helping older adults to
maintain or gain power.
We live in a fast paced, highly technical, knowledge based, learning society where
adults must continually engage in educational opportunities in order to adapt and thrive.
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As such, lifelong learning is essential to be able to function. For example, computer
skills are needed for everything from banking, bill paying, ordering theatre tickets,
booking travel, learning about health concerns, looking for work, performing our work,
and many other day to day activities.
Successful Aging
With increased life spans and an aging population, it will become increasingly
important, for older adults to maintain their health, wellness, abilities and quality of life.
Continued education can play a vital role in that process as it is “essentially an
affirmative enterprise likely to lead to something better in the lives of those participating”
(McClusky, 1973 as cited in Fisher & Wolf, 1998, p. 85). This is a refreshing approach,
as the focus on deterioration, decline and the negative aspects of aging has often
covered over the potential for growth and contribution. This is not to say that we do not
acknowledge and respond to the normal aspects of aging. As McClusky suggests
education can help people “…to anticipate the hazards and opportunities of later years.
By so doing, he will be able to regulate his living in advance so that when hazards
appear they will be defused, and the opportunities exploited” (McClusky, 1971, p.6).
McClusky’s theory of margin reflects the human condition of adults across their
life span. It is an excellent model to utilize in understanding the demands and stresses
that occur and how adults continually juggle a number of roles and responsibilities
(load). In order to have the margin needed to successfully cope with these demands
individuals need the resources (power) to deal with load. It is unfortunate, that often
when people struggle with the load and the demands of their lives, they blame aging.
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For example, when an individual has multiple commitments and responsibilities pulling
them in numerous directions, and they forget something, you may hear them say, “oh, I
must be getting old and forgetful” or “I am having a senior moment”. If this individual
examined their load and power ratio, they may realize that the issue is not a faulty
memory, nor is aging the cause, but rather they are experiencing inadequate power to
deal with load and as such their stress level is high and ability to cope is being strained.
The Theory of Margin can put life and the life span in a view that can be dealt
with head on. Education can be instrumental in dealing with the issues of load and in
seizing opportunities to increase power. Educational programs can assist older adults to
meet their coping, expressive, contributive, influence and transcendence needs.
Education can also help older adults to maintain and gain power so that they may have
the physical, social, mental, economic and skill resources, to be able to successfully
deal with their loads and realize their potential for an enriching life. These programs will
be of benefit not only to the older adults participating, but also to the community and to
future generations of older adults who will gain from positive role models to lead them
on a path towards positive aging.
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References
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http://assets.aarp.org/www.aarp.org_/articles/NRTA/LearningThroughoutLife.pdf
Begley, S. (2006). Old brains don’t work that badly after all, especially trained ones.The
Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from:
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB114133840568987991.html
Darkenwald, G. & Merriam, S. (1982) Adult education, foundations of practice, New
York: Harper and Row
Fisher, J. (1998). Major streams of research probing older adult learning.
New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 77, 27-39.
Lakin, M., Mullane, L., & Robinson, S. (2007). Framing new terrain: older adults &
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Main, K., (1979). The power-load-margin formula of Howard Y. McClusky as the
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argin_(1963)
McClusky, H. Y. (1971). Education: background issues. White house conference on
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Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S. & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood.
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Moody, H.R. (1976). Philosophical Presuppositions of Education for Old Age.
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Peterson, D.A. ((1983). Facilitating education for older learners. San Fransciso:
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Vierck, E. (n.d.) Memory and Aging. APA office on aging website. Retrieved from:
http://www.apa.org/pi/aging/memory-and-aging.pdf
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