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Theoretical Approaches to Disability
Content in Social Work Education
a
Stephen French Gilson & Elizabeth DePoy
b
a
School of Social Work , University of Maine , 5770 Annex C,
Orono , ME , 04469 E-mail:
b
School of Social Work and coordinator of research and
evaluation, Center for Community Inclusion , University of Maine
Published online: 18 Feb 2014.
To cite this article: Stephen French Gilson & Elizabeth DePoy (2002) Theoretical Approaches to
Disability Content in Social Work Education, Journal of Social Work Education, 38:1, 153-165
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2002.10779088
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THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO DISABILITY CONTENT IN
SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
Stephen French Gilson
University of Maine
Elizabeth DePoy
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University of Maine
This article presents an analysis of disability theory and content in the social
work curriculum and advances a theoretically expansive approach to disability
that is consistent with social work's commitment to diversity and the elimination
of oppression. A careful examination of relevant social work literature reveals
that disability is generally discussed and treated from a diagnostic perspective.
We suggest shifting the approach to disability content in social work curricula
from one that emphasizes individual deficiency to one that addresses disability
as the interaction of a medical condition or diverse conditions with disabling
environments.
theoretical
Clevenger, & Hanley, 1999). Beginning with a
perspectives on disability have undergone a
review of the literature on disability and the
major paradigm shift. Traditionally viewed as
positioning of disability theory within aca-
a deficit, disability is now more commonly
demic discourse, this article goes on to exam-
understood as an element of human diversity.
ine disability content in social work curricula
OVER THE PAST SEVERAL DECADES,
Concurrently, on university campuses, defini-
and literature. Finally, a framework is pre-
tions of disability have been revised to locate
sented to guide social work educators in ad-
disability within the discourses of multicultur-
dressing disability as an element of human
alism and diversity. However, despite the foun-
diversity.
dational focus on diversity and social justice in
the social work curriculum, discussion and
Literature Review
analysis of disability in social work courses
Disability Perspectives
typically occur through a deficit-treatment lens.
Historically, disability has been explained and
In this article disability is defined as the inter-
understood from a variety of perspectives.
play of diverse human conditions with envi-
These views of disability span a continuum
ronmental barriers to full community inclusion.
from a diagnostic-medical perspective to a com-
This con temporary view of disability, although
plex, interactive person-in-environment per-
consistent with the mission and values of so-
spec tive (Stiker, 1999). Simply put, the
cial work, receives limited attention in social
diagnostic-medical explanation of disability
work curricula (DePoy & Miller, 1996; Liese,
places the locus of disability internally, within
Journal of Socia / Work Education Vol. 38, No. 1 (Winter 2002). © Copyright 2002
Council on Social Work Education , Inc. All rig hts reserved .
1.53
154
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
an individual who has experienced illness,
understandings of disability. However, two
insult, or anomaly. This internal focus results
broad definitions of disability predominate:
in an interpretation of the disabled individual
one locating disability as internal to individu-
as defective with reference to normative physi-
als, and one identifying disabling factors in
cal, behavioral, psychological, cognitive, or
sensory being. The interactive, person-in-en-
environments external to individuals. There-
vironment lens, on the other hand, looks at the
introduced to these two d istinct ways of con-
interaction of internal and external factors in
ceptualizing disability.
fore, we propose that social work students be
an individual's life that creates a disabling
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condition. Between these two views, numerous other explanations and understandings of
disability
exis t,
including
The Diagnostic Approach to Disability
The diagnostic approach to disability is
spiritual
based on medical explanations of individual
demonization or glorification of individuals
with disabilities (Gilson & DePoy, 2000b ). Con-
human conditions. In this perspective disability is defined as a long-term to permanent
temporary theorists, influenced by pluralism,
physical, behavioral, psychological, cognitive,
a perspective which posits the phenomenon of
or sensory impediment that renders individu-
multiple realities (DePoy & Gitlin, 1998), view
als less able than those who are free of such
disability within the complex and diverse uni-
impediments, or those with impediments from
verse of human experience, and from this per- , which they can recover (Mackelprang &
spective understand disability as a multilevel
Salsgiver, 1997). This perspective both essen-
social justice concern embedded within par-
tializes disability and locates it within the indi-
ticular cultural, sociopolitical, economic, and
vidual (Shakespeare, 1996) . Interventions
relational environments (Gilson & DePoy,
provided by disability services are designed to
2000b; Linton, 1998; Oliver, 1996; Scotch, 1984).
be curative. That is to say, services are aimed at
Contemporary legislation and protection pro-
remediating the disability (Mackelprang &
Salsgiver, 1997).
hibiting segregation and externally imposed
control over the lives of people with disabili-
In large part, the diagnostic approach is
ties have emerged from this perspective (Ameri-
based on the historic notion of illness advanced
cans with Disabilities Act of 1990, 1990;
by Parsons in the early 1950s. According to
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 1978). But even
Parsons (1964), illness releases the sick person
these laws advance diverse definitions of dis-
from compliance with socially enforced be-
ability. For example, Social Security defines
havioral norms. In exchange for release from
disability as the inability to engage in remu-
behavioral obligations, the individual who is
nerative employment as a result of a disabling
ill is expected to be compliant with, and appre-
condition (Kiernan & Stark, 1986), whereas the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) de-
ciative of, medical intervention designed to
fines disability more broadly as limitation in
proach to disability does not bode well for
life activities due to impairment .
cure. Not unexpectedly, the diagnostic apthose with conditions that cannot be cured,
The literature reveals the complexity and
modified, or changed by professional inter-
conceptual confusion regarding definitions and
vention (Quinn, 1998, p. xix). In this view, the
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DISABILITY CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
155
individual who cannot be "fixed" remains de-
rather than as a physical, behavioral, psycho-
ficient in the sense that the person appears to
logical, cognitive, or sensory inadequacy
function in ways outside of socially acceptable
(Shakespeare & Watson, 1997). For many people
norms (Longmore, 1997; Mackelprang &
with disabilities, while physical, behavioral,
Salsgiver, 1997). The diagnostic approach to
psychological, cognitive, or sensory anomalies
understanding disability, then, classifies an
are acknowledged, they are not necessarily
individual as a deviant or as noncompliant
seen as undesirable, in need of remediation
with conventional behaviors.
(Quinn, 1988), or even relevant to understand-
The concept of reha bili ta tion underlying a
ing the circumstance and experiences of dis-
wide variety of interventions is firmly situated
abled people. Central to this approach is the
within the diagnostic approach, in that most
notion of human diversity. A fundamental
interventions are aimed at improving the func-
question raised by constructionist approaches
tion and well-being of individuals with medi-
to disability is why a condition such as impair-
cal diagnoses (Granger & Fiedler, 1997). While
ment of an individual's ability to walk, which
fields such as occupational therapy and voca-
requires the use of adaptive equipment, is
tional rehabilitation are concerned with the
perceived as a disability, and a condition such
elimination oral tera tion of environmental bar-
as mild nearsightedness, w hich also requires
riers that impede individual function, these
the use of adaptive equipment, is not. In con-
fields are still based on the diagnostic approach ,
structionist approaches to disability, language
to disability. This orientation is apparent in
or the terms that one calls oneself are deter-
these fields ' concern with addressing diagnos-
mined by the disabled person reflecting that
tic-functional abnormality (developmental dis-
individual's interpretation of his or her con-
ability, psychosis, and so forth), regardless of
nection to the social, political, economic, physi-
the locus of the interventions. An individual is
cal, cogni tive, and sensory environment.
referred to rehabilitation because of what is
Because disability is seen as a social" construc-
perceived to be.a medical condition that limits
tion" rather than a condition which is located
function, and this view of disability frames the
"with" an individual, the admonitions by pro-
work of the rehabilitation professional, even if
fessionals, and even scholarly writing venues,
modification of the individual's environment
for those not using person-first language are
is the intervention. Within this perspective,
not appropriate. The individual is "disabled"
rehabilitation practice can range from adapt-
by a socially created set of circumstances and
ing an environment to fit individual limita-
has the right to declare or define himself or
tions to w·o rking with individuals to adapt to
herself as "disabled" by an environment
an environment and exhibit more normative
ra ther than living with a disability (DePoy &
function (Johnston, Steinman, & Velozo, 1997).
Gilson, 2001) .
Unlike the rehabilitation approach, which
Disability as a Construct
can also address the environment as the needed
From a constructionist approach, disabil-
locus of change, constructionist approaches to
ity is viewed as a phenomenon constructed by
disability attribute an individual's incapacity
factors and forces in the ex ternal environment
to function to a disabling environment in which
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156
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
barriers are socially erected and maintained
disability as culture. This focus suggests that
(Hahn, 1993). Negative attitudes, limited or
all individu als who define themselves as dis-
nonexistent physical and communication ac-
abled belong to a unique group, which shares
cess, and the denial of rights and privileges are
circumstances, experiences, tacit rules, lan-
examples of just some of the barriers that interfere with a disabled individual's potential to
of disability is one of group belongingness and
actualize desired social roles such as student,
distinction from other groups who do not share
partner, parent, etc. (Barnes, Mercer, & Shakes-
the disability identity (Mackelprang &
guage, and discourse. In this view, the notion
peare, 1999). Thus, disability is seen as ineq-
Salsgiver, 1997). That is to say, anyone who
uity in how an environment responds to and
identifies as disabled is disabled. Who belongs
interprets human diversity, rather than as a
and does not belong to the culture is therefore
deficit to be cured, remediated, or fixed (Barnes
not based on diagnosable condition, since di-
et al., 1999) .It is not surprising that individuals
agnosis is irrelevant in this approach to deter-
with disabilities have advanced this notion of
mining who is disabled and who is not. Those
disability in direct response to models that
individuals who perceive themselves to be
devalue them (Oliver, 1996).
unfairly treated and perceived as undesirable
Within constructionist conceptualizations
by dominant social institutions are therefore
of disability, there are many different empha-
members of the culture of disability in that
ses, each of which has been posited as a model
1
they share disadvantage and curtailment of
of disability in and of itself. For example, in the
civil rights (Linton, 1998). Within this frame-
view of those who see disability as a political
work, issues involving race, class, gender,
construction, the barrier creating the disabling
sexual orientation, and disability identifica-
condition is disempowerment caused by un-
tion are important determinants of the shared
equal earning opportunities for individuals
experiences that bind people together in single,
with conditions that are socially constructed as
identifiable communities of concern (Charlton,
disabilities. Discrimination and exclusion from
1998). Linton (1998) notes,
the workplace limit the disabled individual's
capacity to exchange earned resources for privi-
we [disabled people] are bound together,
leges, goods, and services. For disabled people
not by ... [a]list of our collective symp-
political life is an economic life wherein the
toms but by the social and political cir-
discrimination, exclusion, and disenfranchise-
cumstances that have forged us as a
ment are experienced as an increased probabil-
group. We have found one another and
ity of sub s tandard wages and pover ty .
found a voice to express not despair at
According to Oliver (1996), the political under-
our fate but outrage at our social posi-
standing of disability, and we would suggest
tioning. (p. 4)
an economic understanding of disability, while
not equivalent to policy, legislation, or social
This outrage is tied not only to the political
change, does provide direction for future po-
position of disabled people, but from a materi-
litical action.
Another important focus within constructionist approaches to disability is the view of
alist analysis, which identifies the "economic
restrictions imposed on the individual that
disable him or her" (Rioux, 1994, p. 5).
DISABILITY CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
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Disability Content in Social Work
Curricula
157
groups." Placing disability solely within the
For the most part, the academy has taken
category of at risk groups leads one toquestion, "at risk for what?" The implicit answer is
the diagnostic approach to disability, viewing
that the condition of disability places one "at
disability as a medical phenomenon to be un-
risk" for failure in one or more essential life
derstood by professionals and treated through
functions as a result of an intrinsic pathological
the provision of services and supports that
condition. Thus, services and protection from
counterbalance personal deficits. Thus the primary study of disability has been limited to
professionals are asserted as necessary by the
categorical placement of disabled people in
such academic disciplines as education, health,
anticipated jeopardy even when no such con-
and human services. And, according to Linton
dition should be ascribed.
(1998), the current division of disability into
It is of great concern that disability in
specialized applied fields in higher education
social work curricula is primarily presented
(e.g., rehabilitation, special education, health,
and examined through a diagnostic lens, not
and so forth) perpetuates the view of disability
only because of the current academic trends
as pathology.
towards pluralism, but also because of the
One way to assess disability content in
fundamental commitment of social work to
social work education is to look at the Council
eradicating oppression, promoting equal op-
on Social Work Education's 1992 Curriculum , portunity, and advancing self-determination.
Policy5tatement(CPS)andthe1994Handbookof
Accreditation Standards and Procedures. Both re-
While we do not suggest that the diagnostic
veal an ambiguous approach to disability defi-
from social worked uca tion, we offer an ed uca-
approach to disability be entirely eliminated
nition and content requirements. Prior to the
tional model below that critically examines
most recent CPS, social work programs were
each perspective of disability and applies it
guided to organize their curricula around ei-
thoughtfully to the curriculum areas of human
ther populations or problem areas. In this tax-
behavior in the social environment, practice,
onomy, disability was included under problem
research, and policy.
areas, while other vulnerable groups were included in populations. Thus disability was
seen as an individual deficit rather than as a
group characteristic.
Model Disability Curricula
As presented in Table 1, the two views of
disability correspond to different theoretical,
The 1992 CPS· reflected some attempt to
methodological, and action approaches in the
more thoughtfully or progressively address
primary social work curriculum areas. The
the issue of disability. However, in addition to
the term " disability," the use of phrases such as
social work curricular content areas on which
we focus are human behavior and the social
"populations at risk" (B6.6), which deny posi-
environment (HBSE), social work practice, so-
tive experiences of disability and position it
cial welfare policy and services, and research.
within a medical and pathological perspective
We have not included a section on the field
continued to be used without further position-
practicum, due in part to the great number of
ing disability in the category of diverse populations along with other devalued "at risk
and because this ed uca tiona! component tends
practicum settings in which students are placed,
158
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
to have an experiential rather than didactic
vide the "normal backdrop" from which dis-
focus . Our discussion considers baccalaureate
ability can be distinguished. By "normal back-
and foundation-year master's content.
drop," the authors are referring to the set of
norms that provide the boundaries for what is
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The Diagnostic Approach to Disability
and Social Work Curricula
considered to be typical as well as acceptable.
Anything existing outside of those boundaries
Human Behavior and the Social Environment.
is therefore deviant. Medical model theories
As mentioned above, the diagnostic approach
that are studied within the HBSE curriculum
to disability defines disability as a long-term or
provide a foundation for assessing functional
permanent, physical, behavioral, psychologi-
adequacy and providing intervention for indi-
cal, cognitive, or sensory impediment to be
vidualimprovement. This foundation provides
treated by working with individual recovery
a framework for viewing individuals in direct
or adaptation, or both (Longmore, 1997;
practice, policy practice, and research practice.
Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 1997; Shakespeare
The theoretical frameworks studied in
& Watson, 1997). Given this definition, disabil-
HBSE courses posit normative behaviors that
ity can be examined in the HBSE curriculum
differentiate age-related phases from one an-
area through developmental, psychodynamic,
other. Those who do not fi t within the norms
biological, behavioral, and psychopathologi-
are labeled on a continuum from eccentric or
cal theories. That is to say, these theories pro-
~
odd to deviant or dysfunctional. These theo-
TABLE 1. Diagnostic and Constructionist Approaches to Disability Content
across Four Major Curriculum Areas
HBSE
Diagnostic
Developmental
·Psychodynamic
Practice
Clinical intervention
Policy
Research
Rational models
Clinical, outcomes
oriented
Rational and
nonrational
models
Integrated
Case management
Psychopathology
Behavioral
Biological
Constructionist Systems
Problem Solving
Sociohistorical /
Community I group
economic context organization
Critical theory
approach
Social construction
Participatory
Humanistic
Psychoeducational
Multiculturalism
Legislative intervention
Direct action
(e.g. lobbying, civil
disobedience)
Ethnography
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DISABILITY CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
159
ries serve to identify those who are in need of
bilitation would focus on teaching compensa-
professional guidance at the clinical or institu-
tory skills to the individual with the head
tional levels and provide a set of normative
injury, modifying the environment to accom-
outcomes to which an individual should be
modate the individual's condition, and, to the
professionally directed.
extent possible, restoring normative roles.
Social Work Practice. Guided by the diagAdditional practice modalities guided by the
diagnostic-based
model include community
nostic approach, direct practice education
case management and case coordination
would center on teaching clinical strategies to
"normalize" or "fix" disabled individuals to
(Gilson, 1998; Gilson & Casebolt, 1997; Netting, Kettner, & McMurtry, 1998).
the degree possible. These strategies may be
collaboratively developed with clients, but also
Social Welfare Policy and Services . In the
social welfare policy sequence, rational modmay be .determined as best practice by the
els of policy, practice policy, or policy implesocial worker, professional team, or both.
To illustrate we focus on a typical sequence
mentation analysis and development are often
of hospital-based practice, followed by rehataught. Rational models of policy developbilitationsettings,andspecializedclinicalcomment, implementation, and analysis tend to
munity outpa tient service experienced by a
approximate both linear-based reasoning and
young adult who has sustained a closed head
an ideologically conservative framework of
trauma. This vignette or illustration reflects a , thought. While this characterization may not
composite characterization of individuals with
always be an absolute, these models tend to
share more commonalities with traditional
brain trauma with whom one of the authors
medical models of analysis and determination
worked. The hospital social worker is involved
than a nonrational model (Jansson, 1994; Netprimarily as educator to the family, and secting et al., 1998). These models of policy and
ondarily to the individual, and as discharge
administrative management analysis, develplanner. Within a diagnostic model, social work
practice wouldJocus on the individual's adopment, and implementation are grounded on
assumptions that: (a) theindividualsexchange
justment to the illness experience and the
productivity for privilege and (b) individual
family's adjustment to the change in the status,
self-interest is a given. Because of this exchange,
role, and functioning of the individual. If the
social worker is practicing from a family
the social worker would advance policy to
strengths perspective (Freedman & Boyer,
promote maximum function for disabled indi2000), it is likely ·that the family would be
viduals but would also maintain clinical conta ct as a mechanism to supervise the
perceived in the. role of caregiver and, by excontinuation of valued productive function on
tension, as a part of the treatment team (parthe part of the disabled individual. Within
ticularly in the presence of severe disability) .
disability practice, the social worker would
Social work direct practice tasks might typitherefore advance policies through an approach
cally involve assisting the individual and family with the acquisition of equipment, social
to agency management that promotes the maximumfunctioning of a disabled individual for the
service supports, educational interventions,
least social/ economic cost, while maintaining
and linkages to specialized clinical community
clinical models of professional intervention.
outpatient services and support groups. Reha-
160
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
On an agency level, macro practice may
sensory conditions may be acknowledged, they
take the form of working to extend individual
are not necessarily perceived as undesirable,
and family services for a specific individual,
in need of remediation (Quinn, 1988; Shakes-
family, or a subset of individuals with disabili-
peare & Watson, 1997), or even relevant to
ties, such as individuals diagnosed with devel-
disability. Rather, individuals are perceived to
opmental or mental disabilities or individuals
be disabled by marginalization, oppression,
with multiple sclerosis.
and hostile environments-those characterized
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For the micro-focused social worker, policy
concerns are commonly limited to a program
for example by a lack of ramps, limited attention to alternative forma ts for printed material,
and agency base of practice. Practice policy
and a severe shortage of sign language inter-
guided by the diagnostic approach takes the
preters, as well as any number of forms of
form of advocating for goods and services for
social, political, and economic devaluation.
the immediate need( s) of individuals and fami-
Taught from the constructionist view of
lies. Examples of this approach include work-
disability, the HBSE curriculum would be in-
ing with third-party payers to purchase a
formed by several perspectives. A broad sys-
wheelchair, medications, secure educational
tems perspective extending beyond individuals
or vocational evaluation and services, or modify
and their families to their interactions with
multiple sociocultural systems would be most
the home environment to improve function .
Research. In the diagnostic approach, research methods that examine disability from a
researcher-driven perspective are emphasized
in the research sequence. In particular, clinical
outcome research relying on predetermined,
standardized testing is indicated. Social work
students are taught strategies such as single
case study designs, experimental, quasi-experimental, and nonexperimental approaches
to examining client and family outcome
(Yegidis, Weinbach, & Morrison-Rodriguez,
1999). Research methods to maintain accountability and measure the outcomes of interventions are emphasized, along with cost-benefit
investigation strategies.
1
useful in examining disability as a construct.
These interactions with sociocultural systems
would be examined to discover the extent to
which they are disabling to particular groups
and individuals. Targets of change would be
the negative attitudes, discrimination, oppression, limitations in civil rights, devaluation,
and limited access to resources, privilege, and
community life experienced by individuals
and groups stigmatized on the basis of anomalous physical, behavioral, psychological, cognitive, or sensory conditions. Several theories
would serve as lenses through which to examine disability and the marginal social/ cultural
positioning assigned to individuals and subgroups whose physical, behavioral, psycho-
The Constructionist Model of Disability
and Social Work Curricula
logical, cognitive, or sensory conditions are
Human Behavior and the Social Environment.
clude social learning theory, social construc-
perceived as "disabilities. " These would in-
As discussed above, in the constructionist
tion ,
pluralistic
perspectives,
and
model, while an individual's anomalous physi-
multiculturalism. A specific focus on social,
cal, behavioral, psychological, cognitive, or
economic, political, cultural, and environmen-
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DISABILITY CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
161
tal barriers that prevent individuals from full
within oppressive systems (Chetkow-Yanoov,
community participation might be a point from
1997). Practice education would therefore in-
which to define and examine disability
clude problem solving, emancipatory ap-
(Hutchison, 1999). Further examination of dis-
proaches (Gambrill, 1997) in which multiple
ability as minority culture would not only
systems would be challenged, and culturally
include analysis of members of disabled groups
competent methods to eliminate barriers to
as marginalized, but also would include look-
community inclusion and social justice for dis-
ing at disability, race, gender, and class as
abled individuals (Longres, 1995). Moreover,
interactive factors that serve as barriers to
practice would be client/ consumer driven or
civil rights and social justice. In such an
directed, with the social worker acting
examination disability would be located within
collabora tivel y as facilitator and liaison to elimi-
the larger discussion of domination and op-
nate barriers, advance opportunity and choice
pression experienced by marginalized cul-
for individuals, families, and groups of dis-
tural groups.
abled individuals, and link disabled people
An example of how social work practice
together in arenas which promote the healthy
might unfold if approached from a construc-
celebration of disability identity and the ad-
tionist view of disability can be seen by recon-
vancement of self-determination (Gilson &
sidering the individual who has been
DePoy, 2000a).
hospitalized after sustaining a closed head in- ,
Systems change and political action would
jury. A social worker practicing from this per-
be important elements of practice within the
spective would use medical information to
constructionist framework of disability. Inter-
understand the conditions of head injury. With
vention would be carried out through team-
that knowledge, attitudes towards individuals
with head injuries, their recovery environ-
work with other professionals, politicians,
family, and community members who are in-
ments, and their social limitations would be
volved in the life of the disabled individual.
examined through the lenses of systems theory
Intervention techniques might involve advo-
(Chetkow-Yanoov, 1992), social learning theory
cacy, psychoeducational groups, sharing of
(Gambrill, 1997), and postmodern construc-
information with client sys terns, policy change,
tionist and deconstructionist theories (Pease,
and collaborative political action.
1999). These views would inform a broad un-
Social Welfare Policy and Services. Policy
and services work framed within a constructionist model of disability would focus on a
continuum ranging from rational to nonrational approaches, and would be carried out at
multiple system levels (Stone, 1997). Work
might begin at the local agency level and
progress to the larger community, state, and
federal systems levels. As described above, the
rational model of policy analysis suggests a
planned and linear approach to the develop-
derstanding and analysis of the social positioning, advantage, and disadvantage likely to be
experienced by the disabled individual.
Social Work Practice. Practicing from a constructionist perspective a social worker might
engage in advocacy, assurance of civil rights,
and elimination of oppression. Whether in a
central or peripheral role, the social worker's
practice model would be based on theory in
which disability is seen as a social construction
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162
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
ment of policy. In contrast, in the nonrational
Considering disability as culture, Netting
perspective policy creation is viewed as a se-
and colleagues (1998) suggest that policy work
ries of complex and nonlinear events and phe-
involves (a) identification of target population,
nomena . Multiple and often competing
(b) determining community characteristics, (c)
value-based interests are viewed as important
recognition of differences, and (d) identifying
influences on the creation and revision of policy.
structure. Further, the authors of this article
Stone's (1997) model is based on the assump-
believe that the addition and synthesis of
tion that policy development, modification,
Figueira-McDonough's approach (1993) pro-
and overturn occur within a paradoxical po-
vides a complementary policy analysis and
litical environment in which personal values
practice perspective guiding the social worker
and stake-holding supercede evidence-based,
to promote the acknowledgment of disability
reasoned policy change. The nonrational model
as a marginalized culture in need of protective
focuses on social values, political decision
efforts such as the ADA.
making, community interests, and the polis.
A more conservative rational approach
Research. For students to be able to examine disability from pluralistic and multilevel
within the constructionist framework would
viewpoints, both experimental and interpre-
involve social workers assuring that disabled
tive research methods (DePoy & Gitlin, 1998)
individuals could be included within existing
would be taught. Experimental-type models
services and supports of a particular client
<of research yielding quantitative findings might
system. A social worker's analysis or interpre-
be most useful in concert with interpretive
tation of intervention and change strategies
approaches. Using mixed methods would al-
would combine a rational model (e.g., Jansson,
low for the measurement of service needs and
1994; Netting et al., 1998) and a nonrational
outcomes to be synthesized with a qualitative
understanding of the attitudinal social context
model (e.g., Stone, 1997) . While the rational
approach would explain the reasoned, evi-
in which these needs and outcomes occur.
dence-based foundation for policy, the intro-
These two important areas of know ledge would
duction of a nonrational perspective would
inform and advance social change in multiple
provide the social worker with an expanded
social, political, and economic arenas. Research
view of social, civil, economic, and legal expe-
from a critical theory perspective-which is
riences of disabled people and communities of
conducted for the purpose of political change-
disabled people. Consistent with Schneider
would guide inquiry towards the production
and Netting's (1999)' call for social workers to
of knowledge for social, political, and eco-
"embrace ambiguity and to connect the often-
nomic change (DePoy & Gitlin, 1998). Studies
invisible struggles of individuals with the more
undertaken from this epistemological perspec-
public actions of decision makers in powerful
tive would enhance understanding of power
positions" (p. 349), this viewpoint would help
relationships and action strategies designed to
the worker begin to appreciate the multiple
provoke change. Traditional methods of eth-
and competing meanings of social welfare
nography (see Babbie, 2001) hold the members
policy and services as they affect individuals
of a culture as experts in their own lives and
and communities.
experiences and, thus, the investigator would
DISABILITY CONTENT IN SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
look to cultural members to answer questions
163
within the larger discourse on diversity.
about language, rules, traditions, rituals, etc.
We do not deny that content on various
that would inform social work knowledge and
physical, behavioral, psychological, cognitive,
practice in disability. Along with ethnographic
or sensory conditions is necessary to an under-
approaches, participatory action research
standing of disability. However, we assert that
would be useful in identifying areas and meth-
decreasing the emphasis on the diagnostic ap-
ods for cultural and social change.
proach to disability and increasing the emphasis on constructionist approaches are essential
Downloaded by [University of Central Florida] at 13:49 19 July 2015
Conclusion
if social work is to actualize its mission and
Disability content in social work educa-
values. Moreover, adopting an approach to
tion is taught largely from a diagnostic per-
studying disability that is similar to the ap-
spective. However, this approach is seriously
proach that has been taken by other vulnerable
outdated and does not encourage social work-
groups is an important step in advancing civil
ers to engage in practice, thought, inquiry, and
rights for those who currently belong to this
policy change aimed at the eradication of so-
group and those who do not. Dissimilar to
cial injustice resulting from discrimination towards disabled individuals. As indicated in
other groups such as women and ethnic minorities, the boundaries of the disability com-
the literature, disability coexists with poverty,
munity are permeable. Anyone can become a
limitations in civil rights, prejudice, and de- '
member at any time, whether through injury
valuation. In concert with social work's mis-
or illness. Integrating disability into the dia-
sion to advance social justice and eliminate
logue on diversity and oppression therefore
oppression are conceptualizations of disability
has a wide application for those who are cur-
which fall broadly within the constructionist
rently disabled as well as for those who are not.
a pproach.lt is critical that these conceptualiza-
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Accepted: 10/ 01.
Stephen French Gilson is associate professor, School of Social Work, and Elizabeth DePoy is
professor , School of Social Work , and coordinator of research and evaluation, Center for
Community Inclusion, University of Maine.
Address correspondence to: Stephen French Gilson, University of Maine, 5770 Annex C, Orono, ME
04469; email: [email protected].