What does it take to manage larger construction projects: The role of
Emotional Intelligence, Reflection-In-Action and Autoethnography.
Peter Livesey Simcorp Pty Ltd, U.T.S (Ph.D. student)
Abstract
This paper discusses the recent research on how project management skills should change as the
construction project size increases from below the $50 million mark to above the $500 million
mark. The need for Emotional Intelligence as a skill, in addition to the traditional project
management skills of PMBoK, is discussed. The use of autoethnography and reflection-in-action as
tools to assist in developing Emotional Intelligence is also discussed.
Keywords
Emotional Intelligence, Reflection–in-Action, Autoethnography, Project Management.
1
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally training in the management of Australian construction projects involves
certification based on The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK) (AIPM,
2013). With 30 years of experience as a project manager, I found these skills invaluable but
as the size of the projects I managed increased, especially over $500 million in size, I
realised that PMBoK skills alone were not sufficient to deal with situations:
 that are unique, uncertain, or in-flux,
 where multiple approaches exist to solving a problem,
 and as to how to manage such important areas as team building and stakeholder
management.
Having identified the above shortcomings, as part of my on-going research journey, a
literature review was conducted with the goal of gaining an understanding of how these
problems are currently addressed. The strengths and weaknesses of the approaches
identified are discussed, together with suggestions as to how the practice of project
management may be improved.
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
A preliminary review, over a six month period, of the literature in the project management
field reveals three basic investigative techniques used in researching the practice of project
management. These techniques are summarised in Table 1:
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Research
method
The Traditional Skills
Approach
Description
1. Researches whether
the skills as set out in
PMBoK, are actually
used by project
managers and if using
those skills produces
measurably better
results.
1. Uses interviews
with practitioners to
develop a deeper
understanding of the
field.
Results
1. Finds that the skills
are used, and when
used, produce
measurably better
results.
1. Identifies skills
beyond those in the
traditional PMBoK
skill set.
Comments
Does not deal with;
1. Other skills a project
manager may use
outside those in
PMBoK
2. Further research is
needed in the
application of these
skills to large projects.
1 Identifies additional
skills.
2 No detailed review
of how these skills are
developed.
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Cooperative approach
Table 1
The Practice Review Approach
The Emotional
The Auto
Intelligence (EI)
Ethnological
Approach
Approach
1. Considers the
1. Similar to the
importance of skills cooperative
commonly
approach but in this
identified as EI.
case the presenter
2. Seeks to
of the research is a
understand how
practitioner using
these skills may be their lived
relevant to the
experience.
practice of project
management.
1. Identifies EI
1. Identifies skills
skills applicable to
beyond those in the
project
traditional PMBoK
management and
skill set.
indicates where
their use could be
of benefit.
1. Indicates that EI
skills are important
in project
management.
2. More work is
needed on both the
application of EI to
project
management and
how EI may be
developed.
1. May provide an
insight into how
these additional
skills are identified
and developed.
2. Method has
verification
problems.
The Theoretical
Approach
The Reflective
Approach
1. Uses work by Schon
who discussed the use
of knowledge in action
and how that may be
modified by reflection
(reflection in action) to
produce a more
successful practitioner.
2 Seen in commentary
from practitioners.
1. Discusses how skills
are developed from an
original professional
knowledge base into
the advanced skills
used by practitioners.
2. May explain the
development of
intuition.
1. May provide insight
into a method whereby
the practitioner
develops the additional
skills that lead to
success in project
management.
1. Uses aspects of
complexity theory to
provide a framework
for the management
of projects.
2 Seeks to apply
complex responsive
processes of relating
to project
management.
1. Very theoretical
model.
2. Uses concepts of:
project actors and
complexity theory.
1. Whilst the
concepts are
interesting it is
difficult to see how
they can be applied
to the everyday
practice of project
management.
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3
REVIEW OF CURRENT APPROACHES
3.1
THE TRADITIONAL SKILLS APPROACH
Early work in establishing factors for project success was conducted by Baker et al. (1988)
and Pinto and Slevin et al (1987). Crawford (2000) reviewed the literature following on
from these works and found strong support for the hypothesis that project success factors
were associated with the competence of the project manager and that there was little direct
relationship between perceived workplace performance and performance against either
project management standards or previous research findings.
In 2010 Papke –Shields et al. (2010) found that using formal PM practices, the skills
recommended in PMBoK, did increase project success and formal PM practices are indeed
being applied in practice, but not equally or consistently across all the knowledge areas.
The study also found, in agreement with Crawford and Pollack’s (2007), that the use of
these practices did not vary across industry sectors. Additionally, and similarly to Gowan
and Mathieu’s (2005) result, they found that larger, costlier projects have increased usage
of practices involving control.
3.2
THE PRACTICE REVIEW APPROACH
The Cooperative approach
The cooperative approach is based on gaining an understanding of the behaviour of
practitioners as they manage projects. Cicmil et al. (2006) used an approach based on
Pragmatic Epistemology in which the researcher and the researched (in this case the PM
practitioner) engage in the co-production of knowledge.
They developed a scale of project management expertise ranging from the novice through
the competent performer to the expert level. Later Cicmil (2006) used a similar technique to
interview several experienced practitioners and found that they relied on several nontraditional skills.
The UK’s Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) study
“Rethinking Project Management” was reported by Winter et al (2006) . The study
suggested five major directions for future research, all of which involved a move away
from reliance on PMBoK type skills towards the skills described in the works referenced
previously.
Recent work by Fisher (2011), using literature reviews and face to face interviews,
investigated the skills that practitioners consider necessary if a project manager is to be an
effective people manager.
The study found five non-traditional skills regarded as highly important.
Remington (2011), summarising the results from interviews with project managers, found
several areas of importance including: communication, development of effective teams, the
ability of the project manager to reflect, understanding culture and politics, mentors and
personal coaches and leadership skills.
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The Emotional Intelligence (EI) Approach
The concept of EI was first discussed by Mayer and Salovey (1989, 1993, 1995) and
then popularised by Goleman (1996) and has been the subject of several follow-up
works (Boyatzis, Goleman, & Rhee, 2000; Daft, 2011; Daniel Goleman, 2006; Daniel
Goleman, Welch, & Welch, 2012; D. P. Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002; Joseph
& Newman, 2010; Law, Wong, & Song, 2004; Schutte et al., 1998). Its application to
project management has also been the subject of additional work (Boot‐Handford &
Smyth, 2013; Clarke, 2010; Druskat, 2012; Mount, 2006; Muller, Geraldi, & Turner,
2012; Sunindijo, Hadikusumo, & Ogunlana, 2007).
Goleman’s model recognised four key areas which can be further developed into a set
of competencies as summarised in Table 2. This table is adapted from Druskat &
Druskat (2012) who used as their basis a model adopted from Boyatzis et al
(Boyatzis et al.) and Goleman et al. (2002).
Table 2 Goleman and Boyatzis Emotional Intelligence Competency Model.
Self
Other
Self-awareness: Reading one's own
Social awareness: Attuned to
Awareness
emotions and recognising their
how others feel.
impact.
Empathy - understanding others
Emotional self-awareness and taking an active interest in
recognising our emotions and their
their concerns.
effects.
Organisational awareness Accurate self-assessment understanding and empathising
knowing our strengths and
(issues, dynamics, and politics) at
limits.
the organisational level.
Self-confidence - a strong sense of Services orientation ones self-worth and capabilities.
recognising and meeting
customer needs.
Self-management - keeping
Relationship management:
Management
disruptive emotions and impulses
ability to guide the emotional
under control.
tone of the group.
Emotional self-control keeping disruptive emotions
and impulses under control.
Transparency 7 maintaining
integrity, acting congruently
with one's values.
Optimism - persistence in pursuing
goals despite obstacles and
setbacks.
Adaptability flexibility in
adapting to changing situations
or obstacles, motivation.
Achievement orientation - the
guiding drive to meet an internal
standard of excellence.
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Developing others - sensing
others' development needs and
bolstering their abilities.
Inspirational leadership - inspiring
and guiding others.
Influence - wielding interpersonal
influence tactics.
Change catalyst - initiating or
managing change working with
others.
Conflict management - resolving
disagreements.
Teamwork and collaboration working with others toward
shared goals.
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Druskat and Druskat (2012) suggested that projects have particular properties that
require EI skills. These characteristics are: their temporary nature, uniqueness, their
high degree of ambiguity and change and their inevitable misunderstanding and
miscommunication.
The Auto Ethnographic Approach
Autoethnography has been used as a qualitative method that combines the techniques
of autobiography and ethnography. It has been used in sociology and anthology by a
number of writers (Denzin, 1998; Ellis, 2007; Pratt, 2008; Reed-Danahay, 1997;
Sparkes, 2000). More recently, the method has been applied to discuss experiences in
project management (Nugapitiya, 2007) and hypermedia design (Duncan, 2004).
It has been described as “one of the approaches that acknowledges and accommodates
subjectivity, emotionality, and the researcher’s influence on research, rather than
hiding from these matters or assuming they don’t exist”(Ellis, Adams, & Bochner,
2011, p 274). It is however, recognised that autoethnography writers tend to vary their
approach by placing different emphasis on auto- (self), -ethno- (the cultural link), and
-graphy (the application of a research process) and that “different exemplars of
autoethnography fall at different places along the continuum of each of these three”
(Reed-Danahay, 1997) .
This method allows practitioner to use their experience to discuss what skills they
have found necessary, and those events that brought the need for these skills to their
attention.
The Reflective Approach
The concepts of “Knowing-in-Action” and ‘Reflection-in-Action” were described by
Schon(1987), who describes knowing-in-action as that knowledge, or skill, which is
publically observable, such as riding a bike. This knowledge in action is built on
experience and a knowledge base available to practitioners in their field. Occasionally
when this knowledge-in -action skill is used, the practitioner gets an unexpected
and/or undesired result. He can then choose to ignore the event (a form of
confirmation bias) or reflect on what has happened and, as a result of those reflections,
challenge the underlying assumptions used, and modify his behaviour. Such a
technique is referred to by Schon as Reflection-In-Action.
In his review of Schon’s work, Eraut (1995) makes the point that intuitive responses
(which is knowledge-in action) are based on an ability to retrieve similar cases from
memory and to use that prior experience for making decisions in the present. This can
be compared to Cicmil (2006) the description of the expert project manager, who is
characterised by “effortless performance at the level of virtuosity; No thinking/doing,
decision/action, or plan/implement divide; Action based on logic replaced by
experientially based action; intuitive and rational at the same time” (page 188). It
could be argued that what Cicmil was observing was highly developed knowledge in
action resulting from reflection in action.
Winter et al (2006) summarised the results of a UK study into the directions of future
research in project management. Of the several directions reported as worthy of
further development, one specifically identified was that of developing project
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managers from practitioners as trained technicians to practitioners as reflective
practitioners.
3.3
THE THEORETICAL APPROACH
Papers using aspects of complexity theory as a lens for interpreting the behaviour of
complex projects have been produced by Cooke-Davis et al (Cooke-Davies, Cicmil,
Crawford, & Richardson, 2007), Cicmil, Remington and Pollack (Remington &
Pollack, 2007) and Cooke-Davies et al. (2007),
This approach notes that complex projects have characteristics such as non-linearity,
unpredictability, the butterfly effect, edge of chaos, emergence, structures, complex
adaptive systems, indeterminacy and self-organisation, which are similar to issues
considered in complexity theory. Also discussed was the complex responsive
processes of relating (CRPR), an aspect of complexity theory, which was introduced
as a possible framework for developing strategies for the management of projects that
are themselves complex.
4
DISCUSSION
The literature and the author’s experience confirms that the use of, PMBoK type skills
in project management does increase the likelihood of project success, this is not
however the full story.
In a study of 74 worldwide project managers, Mount (2006) found that the skills that
predicted project management superior performance were 69% emotional
competencies and 31% business expertise, indicating that emotional competence was
twice as important as business skill. When discussing superior performance and the
relationship between EI, IQ and experience, Mount comments (at page 121) “The
Emotion Quotient (EI) competence created a circumstance wherein the individual
achieved the desired outcome through the application of their IQ and experience
competencies.” The need for a good IQ and experience is recognised as part and
parcel of superior performance, but the need for EI, particularly if these strengths are
to be used in a team environment, is put in context.
The importance of EI in project management can be further understood if the works of
Druskat and Druskat (2006) on project characteristics are combined with the Goleman
and Boyatzis Emotional Intelligence competency model as in Table 3.
Table 3 Emotional Intelligence Needs in Project Management
Project
Problems
Skills Required
Problem external to
Characteristic Internal to the
the project
Project
Limited Time
 Building a
 Inspiration
 Building rapport

Duration.
cohesive team
Leadership.
with stakeholders. 
quickly. 
Emotional self
 Building trust

control.

within the
 Transparency.

team.
 Motivation.
 Developing others.

 Team
 Influencing others.
development
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Skills Required
Empathy.
Transparency.
Adaptability.
Service orientation.
Teamwork and
Collaboration.
Conflict
management.
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Team
backgrounds
Uniqueness
Ambiguity and
change
Disputes
 Different
 Empathy (of others).
goals, cultures,
values and
professional
backgrounds.
 Understanding  Accurate self
what is needed
Assessment.
in this project.  Self-confidence.
 Optimism.
 Motivation.
 Achievement
Orientation.
 Adaptability.
 Design
 Self-confidence.
changes to 
Emotional selfmeet known
control.
scope.
 Optimism.
 Design
 Motivation.
changes to
 Adaptability.
meet new
 Achievement
scope.
Orientation.
 Team changes.
 Resolving
team conflicts.
 Influencing.
 Conflict
Management.
 Different goals,
cultures, values
and professional
backgrounds.
 Empathizing (at the
organizational
level).
 Managing external
expectations.



 Scope changes.
 Stakeholder
expectations
change.
 Legislational
changes.
 External economic
factors change.
 Unexpected
events.
 Supply delivery
changes.
 Organizational
changes.
 Solving disputes
with stakeholders.
Organizational
Awareness.
Influence.
Change catalyst.
 Organizational
awareness.
 Change catalyst.
 Conflict
management.
 Teamwork and
collaboration.
 Political skills.
 Influencing.
 Conflict management.
Having accepted the importance of EI, how does the practitioner develop his EI?
First, EI is thought to increase with age (Daniel Goleman et al., 2012). For faster
development practitioners must focus their development on training skills that improve
control of feelings, impulses and drives, commonly called the limbic system. This
usually involves the use of a coach or mentor.
Should a mentor not be available, reflection on events of emotional significance can be
used to improve emotional competencies. In support of this argument, three examples
from the author’s autoethnographical database are presented in table 4. These
examples show how the reflective process, as outlined by Schon, can be used to
identify the need for, and the development of, emotional competencies.
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Table 4 Autoethnographical Database
Key Event Description
I was an assistant plant superintendent and
Learned Experience
my career with the company was going
well. I found it extremely hard to get on
with another influential staff member who, I
had to come into contact with on a daily
Resultant Skill need
basis. Eventually, rather than try to work
Identified
through the problems, I let my feelings of
dislike get the better of me and I resigned,
giving up a promising future with the
Company.
EI need Identified
Two weeks after I had left the company, the
person with whom I had had the conflict
left. The thought occurred to me, that I had
thrown away a good opportunity in the heat
of the moment and a little patience would
have made all the difference.
The project I was running was not
progressing well and I decided to run a team
building exercise. A psychologist was
brought to facilitate this exercise, who asked
everyone to discuss their goals for the
project. Answers included:
“To build a plant I will be
proud to show my children”
“To be involved in a job
that I can use for a
reference”
“To do a job that impresses
the client”
Learned Experience
Resultant Skill need
Identified
EI need Identified
My goal was to make a profit.
The whole experience was a major
revelation to me, as I had always assumed
that we all had the same goals.
I was involved in a number of bids and one Learned Experience
of the estimators despite being asked not to
include any contingency in his estimates,
continued to do so, making the price
unfavourable. I used to review the bid with
the engineering manager, and we would add
an allowance for risk (i.e. contingency). I
complained to the engineering manager who Resultant Skill need
asked me what I was bothered about. I told Identified
him and he replied “there is no real problem
as he always does that and I know to allow
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Not having patience and
acting on impulse can
be costly.
Control your emotions
and do not act in a
temper or on impulse.
Emotional self-control keeping
disruptive
emotions and impulses
under control.
Team members have
their own unique goals
and
these
goals
influence
their
behaviour
on
the
project.
Need to understand
team members’ goals
and to take them into
account.
Empathy
understanding
others
and taking an active
interest in their concerns
Different
goals,
cultures, values and
professional
backgrounds.
Teamwork
and
collaboration - working
with others toward
shared goals.
There was no need to
demand that a person be
perfect in their area,
what you wanted was
someone who was
consistent.
Develop a team that
compensates for its
members’
imperfections; do not
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for it as it is always the same amount. It is
not people who make the same mistake over
and over again that you need to worry about,
its people who make random errors. You
just have to provide the right support if you EI need Identified
can predict what error is going to be made.”
waste time believing
you will have perfect
team members.
Developing others
- sensing others'
development needs
and bolstering their
abilities.
Teamwork and
collaboration working with others
toward shared
goals.
5
CONCLUSION
A major project does have aspects of complexity theory, as any changes in start
conditions can result in vast changes as time progresses. Furthermore, in projects, the
surrounding environment is continually changing, resulting in major modifications to
projects as they develop over time.
Thus developing a unified theory that ensures successful project completion is an
unrealistic objective. A more suitable objective is to determine what skills can be
applied to managing a project that will increase, but not guarantee, the likelihood of
success.
Fruitful areas for future research lie in understanding how the skills needed by a
project manager, in addition to those identified by PMBoK, may be developed,
especially in gaining a greater understanding of the significance of EI in the necessary
skill set of a project manager. To assist in this understanding, it is suggested that an
autoethnographic approach by experienced practitioners emphasising reflection-inaction may provide a guideline to others as to how these skills can be identified and
developed.
Finally, gaining an understanding of how the concepts introduced by complexity
theory may be of practical application in project management would appear to be of
benefit.
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Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank Dr A Nugapitiy, for his assistance in writing this article.
.
References
6
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