PL 253: RESEARCH METHODS
• Course Description
• To acquire the basic knowledge in research
methods and to apply it in undertaking social
research.
• The scope covers the meaning and purpose of
research, scientific approach to research, the
research design, determination of data needs and
appropriate methods of data collection and tools
for analysis of data, research findings and the
different styles of report writing .
1
COURSE CONTENTS
• Lecture 1:
General Introduction
• Definition, purpose and relevance of research
to development
• Key concepts and principles
• Scientific Approach in Social Science Research
2
Lecture 2:
Elements of Research
Design
• Research process
• Theory and hypothesis
• Research objectives and scope
3
Lecture 3:
Types of Research Design
• Qualitative and Quantitative Research
• Classical Experimental Research Design
• Cross-Sectional Research Design
4
Lecture 4:
Sampling Methods
• Probability and Non Probability
• Types of Non Probability Sampling Methods
• Types of Probability Sampling Methods
• Sample frame and sample size determination
5
Lecture 5 & 6 Methods of Data Collection
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Secondary Data
Sources and use of secondary data
Availability and reliability
Primary Data
Methods for collecting primary data
Questionnaire design and administration
Interview schedule and case studies
Pre-testing and pilot surveys
Problems/challenges associated with data
collection
6
Lecture 7 & 8
Data Processing and Analysis
• Data coding and editing
• Data presentation e.g. tabulation, use of
charts, etc.
• Categorization of data
• Principles of data classification
• Primary and Secondary analysis
• Role of computers and statistical packages
7
Lecture 9 & 10
Report Writing
•
•
•
•
•
Important considerations
Types of compositions or styles
Content Determination and Organisation
Drafting process of reports
Format and guidelines for the presentation of
tables, footnotes, references, diagram, etc.
• Level of reporting (Monographs, occasional
papers, journal articles, newspaper articles)
• The use of tables and diagrams, function of the
appendix/annex.
8
PL 253 – RESEARCH METHODS
LECTURE 1:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
9
Definition of Research
• It is a structured or systematic enquiry purposefully designed
to investigate the dynamics and operations of a physical or
human phenomena. It includes;
Physical Processes
Social Processes
Human behaviour
• “seeking through methodological processes to add to one’s
own body of knowledge and, hopefully, to that of others, by
the discovery of non-trivial facts and insights” - Howard and
Sharp (1983).
10
Definition of Research
• For planners – it is a process of understanding the elements
and processes of a human institution and the functional
relationships operational within the system with the intention
of providing a rational basis for a meaningful intervention.
11
Purpose of Research
• Data gathering
• Understanding the components and relationship in a
system
• Provide explanations, test validity or applicability of
theories and hypothesis.
• Explore new frontiers of knowledge
• Investigate a problem in order to prescribe solutions
12
Relevance to Development and Planning
• Gives society greater control and mastery of its resources
and environment
- Researchers Provide intellectual leadership for
development
• The challenge of relevance of research to local needs
• Ability and willingness to apply the results of research to
development – politicians and Technocrats
• Investments in research – appreciating the need to
commit more resources to development research.
13
Relevance to Development and Planning
• Explores new and effective ways of doing old things (Mobile
Phone, ICT etc);
• Examines how untapped resources can be exploited and
utilised (e.g. bio-technology – energy production).
• Any meaningful development must be based on knowledge of
the system or the situation – preface interventions with
investigations (i.e. research) E.g. Data for projections
• Means of evaluating on-going development projects and
strategies.
14
Challenges
• Relevance of research to local needs
• Ability and willingness to apply results of
research to development (Politics).
• Investment in research ≡ the secret of
advancement in western countries is research.
15
What is Science? – meaning
• People confuse
methodology
the
content
of
science
with
its
• Research must satisfy the basic requirements of science
1. Science is variously explained in different contexts.
- Prestigious undertaking; understanding nature
- Body of true knowledge
- Objective investigation of empirical phenomena.
Scientific Approach - Claim of superiority of Knowledge
- Derived from the Latin word “Sare” - “to know”.
16
2.
Other ways of Knowing - historically
Authoritarian Mode
-
referring to individuals who are socially and politically qualified as
producers of knowledge
-
oracles in tribal societies, archbishops in theocracy, kings in monarchical
societies, scientist in technocratic societies etc.
Mystical Mode
-
Knowledge is obtained from authorities on the supernatural – prophets,
diviners, mediums etc
-
Very close to Authoritarian Mode but differs in terms of its dependencies
on manifestations of supernatural events and the Psychological state of
mind of the consumer of knowledge – very ritualistic
17
Rationalistic Mode - “Rationalism” – Philosophy
- Totality of Knowledge can be obtained by strict
adherence to the forms and rules of logic
- That is, all that is valid must be explained by logical
construction of facts?
18
Basic Assumptions of Science
• Science is rooted in a body of assumptions that are
unproven and unprovable.
• “Epistemology”
Study of the foundations of
knowledge” – examines the nature of these premises and
how they work.
• The study of these assumptions helps us to understand
the “scientific Approach” and its claim of superiority over
other forms of knowledge.
19
• Nature is orderly
- recognisable regularity and order in the natural world – no reference to
the existence of an omnipotent or supernatural force.
• We can know nature:
- the human being is part of nature and the human being is capable of
knowing nature as well as itself.
• All natural phenomena have natural causes:
- does not accept any causal forces except natural ones
- rejects and opposes fundamental religion, spiritual, miracle, magic and
supernatural explanations to events
• Nothing is self-evident
- scientific knowledge is not self-evident – therefore all claims of knowledge
must be subjected to objective demonstration – i.e. proof.
20
• Knowledge is derived from the acquisition of experience.
- if science is to help us understand the world, there it must be
“empirical”
- i.e., it must rely on perceptions, experience and observations
• Knowledge is superior to Ignorance
- Knowledge to be pursued for its own sake and also to improve
ourselves.
- we cannot know everything – Knowledge is tentative and
changing – openness to on-going evolution of knowledge.
E.g. Urbanisation, shape of the world.
21
The Role of Science – The Scientific Approach
•
The role of Science in Social Science and Planning research is becoming more and
more prominent – it is being driven by a quest to be more and more scientific.
-
Social Science research is being stretched to a level of systematises and empirical
verification characterising research in the physical sciences.
•
Science has no subject-matter of its own and not every study of phenomenon can
be regarded as science e.g. Astronomy.
-
Science then does not refer to body of “general or particular knowledge” but to a
distinct methodology (process of ordered assembling knowledge)
•
Science is an accumulation of systematic Knowledge – i.e.; knowledge collected by
means of (Scientific) methodology (ordered process).
a method is approach to the empirical world
a mode of analysis which permits scientist to state propositions in the form of “if”
and “then”.
-
22
The aim of (Social ) Sciences
• The body of knowledge so accumulated in the social sciences
is to enable us to:
- explain why and how things happen the way they do.
- predict – “if” and “then”
- understand a phenomenon – e.g. why the poor stay poor.
The Roles of Methodology
• What makes the scientific approach unique from other modes of
acquiring knowledge is its assumptions and methodology.
• A Scientific methodology is a system of explicit rules and
procedures upon which research is based and against which claims
for knowledge are evaluated or verified.
23
Methodology provides 3 things/rules
• Provides rules for Communication:
- to facilitate communication between researchers who have or want
to have shared experience.
- Framework for replication and constructive (Safeguard against
international error or deception).
• Provides rules for Reasoning:
- System of logical reasoning - the system of valid reasoning that
permits drawing reliable inferences from factual observation
- Logical procedures take the form of closely interdependent serves
of propositions that support each other.
• Provides rules for inter subjectivity:
- The process of establishing objectivity through validation. One
scientist replicating the procedure of research in order to validate
empirical facts and conclusions of another scientist.
24
The Limits of Science in Social Science Research
• Human behaviour changes too frequently to allow real scientific
predictions with precision.
• Human behaviour is too elusive, subtle and complex to yield to the
rigid categorisation and artificial instruments of science.
• Human behaviour are studied by other human beings whose
observations and judgements are coloured by their own values,
perceptions and biases.
• Human beings who are subjects of such predictions have the ability
to obstruct the prediction.
Scientific tools in the physical sciences cannot therefore be
transferred or applied fully in social science research.
The core issue is the Human being at the centre of
development research.
25
Q&A
26
LECTURE 2:
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
PROCESS
27
DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE
Elements of Research Design Process
• Definition – the logical sequence that links the
empirical data to the research problems and
ultimately to its conclusions.
- The logical framework or process for
realising the research objectives. (e.g. a road
map);
- Why? To avoid a situation where the
evidence gathered does not address the
research problem or question;
28
KEY ELEMENTS
• Some authors differentiate between design
process and a work plan
- Research design – deals with the logical
problem and step by step approach for
realising the research objectives; whiles
- Work plan – deals with logistical problem
or needs and a road map.
29
KEY ELEMENTS
Research Problem
• Choice or emphasise depends on the background of
the researcher;
• Planners use “Problem definition”;
• Research problem “is an intellectual stimulus calling
for a response in the form of scientific enquiry”
30
Caution
• Not all intellectual stimuli can be studied empirically, and not all
human behaviour is guided by specific knowledge.
• Problems that cannot be empirically grounded or (that are)
concerned with subjective preferences, beliefs, values or tastes are not
amenable to empirical enquiry.
Differences between a problem statement and research question
• Problem
- an expression of a need to be addressed
• Question
- not necessarily a need but a subject of interest
E.g. why do people migrate?
What are changing trends of migration?
31
Content of a Problem
•
•
•
•
•
•
Need to develop the logical evolution of the problem;
what questions/issues are being addressed,
why is it a problem,
the causes;
the effects;
Target groups.
Objectives - The researcher’s response to the problem defined.
Defines what the study seeks to achieve.
• Very important because all other issues must relate to this.
• Regarded as the HANDLE or reference point of the research
32
APPLICATION OF OBJECTIVES
• In planning research - Goals and Objectives or General – operational
objectives.
• Gives a clearer sense of focus and ensures that the research stays
within feasible limits and achieves its purpose.
Hypothesis
• a tentative answer to a research problem, expressed in the form of
a clearly stated relation between the independent and dependent
variables.
• They are tentative answers because they can be continued/ verified
only after they have been tested empirically.
• A hypothesis is constructed and subjected to a test, if rejected,
another one is put forward; if accepted, it is incorporated into a
body of scientific knowledge.
33
Examples
• Poor people stay close to their place of work
• Excessive occupancy rates and high densities adversely affect
housing maintenance.
•
Attendance of increasing of number of meetings affect academic
performance of Christian students.
Theory
• A set of propositions or constructs that help to explain,
describe or predict reality.
• Structured explanation of reality descriptive or mathematical.
34
Formulation of Hypothesis
• A hypothesis states what we are looking for – a formulation of a
deduction if verified, becomes part of a future theoretical
construction.
A proposition which can be tested to establish its validity
May prove to be correct or incorrect in accordance with or
contrary to common sense
• Hypothesis is the necessary link between theory and the
investigation which leads to the discovery of addition to
knowledge.
35
Difficulties in the formulation of hypothesis
• The absence of a clear theoretical framework
• Lack of ability to utilise that theoretical framework logically.
• Failure to be acquainted with available research
techniques so as to be able to phase the hypothesis clearly.
Characteristics of Usable Hypothesis
• Must be conceptually clear –operationally defined.
• Should have empirical referents - no only value
(judgements)
• Must be specific – operations and predictions indicated by
it should be spelled out.
• Should be related to available techniques
• Should be related to a body of theory
36
Variables
• In order to move form conceptual to empirical level,
concepts are converted into variables.
• They are Key elements of the research problem and
objectives and propositions
Definition: an empirical property that can take on two or
more values. That is, if a property can change, either in
quantity or quality it can be regarded as a variable.
• E.g. Housing conditions, travel time or speed
37
Types of Variables
• Dependent and Independent Variables
• Dependent – variable the researcher wants to
explain (also called Criterion variable)
• Independent – that which is expected to explain the
change in the dependent variable (also called
explanatory or predictor variable).
38
Q&A
39