Job Design
Herzberg’s Factors (again)
Job Design is the linking of specific task behaviours to jobs, followed by
application of techniques, equipment and job control procedures. Done
in order to improve the quality of work life. More meaningful jobs that
integrate employee needs with organizational needs enhance job
involvement and motivation. Recent movement has placed QWL
programs under scrutiny in that they no longer implemented simply to
raise levels of employee satisfaction, they must provide payback in
organizational terms.
1
Demographic shift
Address higher order needs
Interventions
Hygienes
“No dissatisfaction”
Self directed teams
Job range
# of tasks employees perform , perhaps at different
times related to a core work activity
Increase # of work activities in job
Job enlargement
Different work expectations
Variation of job enlargement – trained in
# work activities
Cross Training
Skill variety: technical, social, etc requirements within job
Task Identity: ability to see job through from beginning to end
Task significance: does it really matter, is it important
Social opportunity: interaction
Autonomy: freedom to control work activities
Feedback: from work itself on work effectiveness:
2
Job Content
Scientific management addressed
objective aspects of work only. Job
content recognizes the subjective
(psychological) aspect of the job, and the
setting in which it is performed.
Perceptions of job content precede
performance in that employees make
conclusions about the presence or
absence of job content prior to attaining
some performance level. Key for
managers then is to influence
performance by changing job content.
Job rotation
Task significance
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Challenge
Responsibility
Pride in work
Recognition
Growth opportunities
Promotions
Managers must maintain an appropriate level of hygienes
while improving the motivational aspects of the job
(such as through Job design interventions adjacent).
Herzberg led the charge against scientific management
3
Job Range
(Horizontal)
Experienced meaningfulness of work
Critical Psychological States
Social opportunities
Experienced responsibility for work outcomes
Personal and work outcomes
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High Internal work motivation
High quality performance
High job satisfaction
Low absenteeism and turnover
Autonomy
3
Job Depth
Six Job Content Factors
Amount of discretion to select job procedures
Skill variety
Task Identity
Salary
Job security
Working conditions
Status
Org procedures
Supervision
Interpersonal aspect
Rotate workers thru specialized jobs
over time
Note: Job Enlargement makes greater demands on employees than job
rotation. Since they must acquire new skills and assume more responsibility
Job depth
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Motivators
“intrinsic factors”
(Vertical)
Feedback
Knowledge of results of work activities
Growth Need Strength
People with a growth need and strength are
likely to seek challenging work and prefer to
make independent job decisions. People with
low growth need strength do not seek jobs
with these job content factors
Note: Drivers for QWL
5
Task control Accountability Workpace Accomplishment Interest -
Herzberg’s Job Design Principles
Give employees as much control over ways to complete task as possible
Hold employees accountable
Let employees set their own workpace
Design jobs so employees sense accomplishment
Design jobs so employees learn new skills and work procedures
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Increased differences between workers
Better union accceptance
Understanding of QWL by managers on bottom line
Support by government (tax incentives for retraining)
Note: Scientific Management
Job Design in an Individual context
We know (based on adjacent
sheet) that there is:
Job Range (Horizontal)
Job rotation: not
very effective if
tasks are similar and
boring, i.e. busboy
to dishwashing.
Job enlargement:
changes nature of
work eliminating
overspecialization
created by scientific
management
Cross Training:
earn more for
learning new skills,
increase skill of
work force but also
pressures pay system
Job depth (Vertical)
JD also known as vertical job-loading involving changes which influence the
planning and doing components of work
Principles:
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Job design should provide direct employee feedback on jobs. Employees can be
their own quality control inspectors.
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Opportunity to learn new skills. They need to grow.
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Opportunity to influence scheduling of work. Flextime with core hours for
example.
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Each job should have qualities which distinguish it from other jobs. The job
should fit the personality of its holders.
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Opportunity to control job resources. Ex. Letting them service their own
equipment.
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Personal accountability should be increased.
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Limited social interaction
Low skill requirements, minimal training requirements
Machine pacing
Repetitive
Specialization of tasks
Specified methods, no employee variation
Above combined to trash craftsmanship and pride,
this approach will not sustain growth in face of
modern competition
Team
Based
Design
9
Management Design Of Self Directed Teams
Social-technical system involving 2 opposing forces
Considerations:
 Creation of high performance norms
 Channelling group conflict to useful ends
 Creating satisfying inter-personal relations
 Aligning technical work with structure of group
Technical element. Scientific management and
productivity emphasis on specialization through
operational, equipment and technical/mechanical
processes
These two are so interdependent that work
designs must be built which account for
their interplay
Social element. Behavioural sciences dealing
with interpersonal aspects of task group
behaviour
Basic building block of team approach
So…
.
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NUMMI plant good example of
application (review pg 16/17)
Autonomous work group
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Teams should be relatively small (8-20)
Avoid team centered interventions (sensitivity
training) as they alter the group climate
Pay system structured to ensure individual pay is
based on group performance
Supervisor in horizontal integrator role with
other teams vice vertical liaison
Team given authority to plan, organize, and
control a defined piece of work wrt quality and
quantity (expanded job range and depth)
Group assigned a whole task that is understood, significant
and meaningful i.e appropriate group mission statement
Group individuals possess complimentary skill sets,
encourage cross training and skill acquisition
Group is given autonomy. Work methods, scheduling, task
assignment, sometimes new member selection
Reward group performance rather than individual
performance
Qualities of such work groups
include cohesiveness, and
effective cross training, due to
the fact mbrs ar closer to the
tasks being performed.
Effective management skill
acquisition due to shared
leadership, and higher
performance goals based on
collaboration
1. How employee motivation and performance are related to job design
2. Difference between jobs fulfilling high order needs and those that dont.
3. Approaches for job design at individual employee level
4. Why managers continue to be interested in effect of job design
5. Apply the rules of job design
6. Link job design, employee participation, reduction of job stress
7. How employee personality interacts with job design
8. conditions that might make employee participation effective
9. Describe new developments in team-based employee participation
Preconditions
For Worker
Empowerment
Ability to become psychologically
involved in participative activities
Motivation to act autonomously
8 Considerations for Managers (Empowerment & Participation)
7&8
Paradox as these qualities are reflected in ‘internalizers’,
therefore, a dynamic tension between individual needs
(internalizer) and those of the team. These people must
strike a proper balance in developing the individual
identity, yet subordinating that identity to the will of the
team. This leads to the third requirement. (What is in it
for me??)
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Ability to see benefit of participation
for one’s own well being
Participation Has 3 Features
Psychological/mental involvement. I must be interested
and motivated and wish to take on responsibility. This
leads to attainment of higher order needs. It cannot simply
be physical involvement.
Motivation to Contribute. Intrinsic rewards help
employees internalize the motivation to contribute. You
cannot instruct people to participate as you cannot legislate
motivation. (uninspired compliance)
Acceptance of Authority. Responsibility grows on
people, they learn to like it. As they acquire more
responsibility as a team, they learn to rely on each other
more increasing collaboration, and innovation.
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Training and preparation. Cannot do this under emergency conditions
Managers must coach not micromanage
Must believe employees have/can develop a high growth need strength
Employees must view participation as a central feature, participation otherwise
will be a distraction
Employees need intellectual and conceptual skills for technical problem solving
but also skill set to problem solve with a participative approach
Effective communications. Common org terminology to facilitate cooperation
within and between teams. Superiors and subordinates must be able to freely
discuss problems
Adapt or die. It will not always be easy and org cannot afford to take easy way
out (competitive advantage)
Leadership must instill confidence and trust
Presence of motivational systems that tap full spectrum of hierarchy of needs
Subordinates must be involved in goal setting
Decision making that occurs at all levels
Control processes which are dispersed and emphasize self-control
High Performance standards and are pursued aggressively
Note: some reasons why organizations may choose to avoid these innovations:
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Lack of competition. High entry barriers, very loyal customer base,
government protection, global industries tend to overlook due to small
specialist market, patents etc
Other less expensive interventions to increase productivity have yet to be
pursued
Few management layers are already in place. In a way the system is
inherent already in the organization
Jobs highly specialized governed by strong rules and regulations (aircrew
procedures0
Inability of employees, if forced will lead to increased job stress
Employees may have sufficient high growth need strength and will avoid
new measures
Unions
Installment of system will likely lead to reduction of middle managers
which may change the cost/benefit analysis
May not have the will to pursue the vision, change becomes an end unto
itself called ‘means-end conversion’ really need a good strategic plan, lack
of which would be a de-motivator for change
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4
Job design fulfills 2 goals. Improved organizational
effectiveness; satisfaction of employee needs.
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Factors influencing increased interest:
 More competition
 increased use of technology
 improvement in job design methods
 better understanding of the implementation process
 greater dependability of results
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Employers interest in job design
Therefore…..
Reasons for increased interest:
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Job design expands the number of intrinsic rewards
Job design is behavioural vice attitudinal based (more results)
Encourages flexible employee attitudes and innovation
Feedback and responsibility fulfills employee higher order needs
Alternatives to a totally participative organization:
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Scanlon Plan – interlocking employee committees for
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Reviewing work procedures
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Evaluating suggestions
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Involving employees
Scanlon plans set up group based bonuses to employees who can exceed a
historical standard. It is NOT based on profit sharing
BUT beware of…
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Technology
Startup and maintenance costs
Failure to consider employee preferences
Managerial and union resistance
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Quality circles. Groups of 5-12 employees who meet with their superiors
once a week to solve production problems. Not a control system like
appraisal or reward systems. (Affects planning of POCL)