Ch. 9: The West
Between the Wars
(1919 – 1939)
9.1: The Futile Search for Stability
I. Uneasy Peace in Europe
1.
2.
3.
Treaty of Versailles left
many nations dissatisfied
largely as a result of new
states & border disputes
League of Nations too
weak to be effective
France & Germany, still
bitter enemies, nearly
engaged in war along
the shared border in the
Ruhr Valley as German
economic situation
prevented them from
making reparations
payments
Weakness of LON
Weak European Economy after WWI:
1. 1920s: rebuilding war-torn economies w/
loans from U.S.
2. Most major European countries bankrupt
A. Inflation in Germany
To pay for WWI & reparations,
Germany did not raise taxes, Weimar
Republic printed money, which added
to severe inflation process already in
process
German mark became worthless:
1.
2.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
3.
1914: 4.2 DM = 1 USD
1919: 9 DM = 1 USD
1922: 500 DM = 1 USD
Jan 1923: 18,000DM = 1USD
July 1923: 350,000DM = 1 USD
Aug 1923: 5,000,000 DM = 1 USD
Nov 1923: 4,200,000,000,000 DM =
1 USD
People’s life savings gone &
middle/working classes began to
blame Weimar Republic & seek more
radical political parties
B. Recovery: the Dawes Plan, 1924 - 1929
1.
2.
3.
Granted a $200mn. loan
from U.S. banks to
stabilize the German
economy; re-scheduled
reparations payments
Loan opened door to
heavy American
investment in Europe
Some politicians
criticized the use of the
Dawes Plan b/c it did not
reduce amount of
reparations & kept
Germany dependent
upon foreign investment
Nazi Party election poster,
1924 depicting a Jewish
banker controlling
Germany (the large figure)
C. Post-war Peace
1.
►
►
Briand & Stresemann shared the Nobel
Peace prize in 1926 for their work on the
peace pacts.
►
2.
►
►
►
President Coolidge signs the
Kellogg-Briand Pact
The Treaty of Locarno, 1925
Peace b/w Germany & France
negotiated by foreign
ministers of each country
guaranteed Germany’s
western borders w/ Belgium
& France
Germany admitted to the
L.O.N. (1926)
The Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928
63 nations, including USSR,
signed agreement to
renounce war as an
instrument of policy
No provisions if pact was
violated
Nations refused to reduce
military forces
II. The Great Depression, 1929
Causes:
A.
Overproduction & Underconsumption: mid 1920s
►
B.
Decline in manufacturing
orders coupled w/ an
agricultural surplus leads
to decline in prices &
inability to repay loans,
which weakens banks
Stock Market Crash,
October 1929
►
Bull market in late 20s
encouraged investors to
buy on margin; when
stock prices fell investors
panicked & market
collapsed
The trading floor of the New York Stock Exchange
just after the crash of 1929. On Black Tuesday,
October twenty-ninth, the market collapsed. In a
single day, sixteen million shares were traded--a
record--and thirty billion dollars vanished into thin
air. Westinghouse lost two thirds of its September
value. DuPont dropped seventy points. The "Era of
Get Rich Quick" was over. Jack Dempsey, America's
first millionaire athlete, lost $3 million. Cynical New
York hotel clerks asked incoming guests, "You want
a room for sleeping or jumping?"
Images of the Great Depression
C. Depression Spreads Worldwide
Europe:
1.
2.
3.
U.S. bankers & investors
began to pull money out
of Germany & Europe
U.S. market for European
goods fell as tariffs were
imposed & world trade fell
by 65%, increasing
unemployment &
depression
Though W. European
nations maintained
democracies, there was
renewed interest in
Communism among
workers & intellectuals & a
willingness to give power
to political leaders who
promised solutions, but
were dictators
Blanche Grambs,
No Work, 1935
Diego
Rivera,
Frozen
Assets,
1931
D. The Response
1.
►
►
►
2.
►
►
Europe:
Britain, France, &
Scandinavian countries able
to maintain democracies
Implemented programs to
increase taxes, lower interest
rates, labor reforms, & public
works projects
Rise of Fascism in Germany,
Italy, Spain
U.S.:
FDR elected 1932 & used idea
of large government spending
to promote economic
recovery (Keynes Theory)
The New Deal: public works
programs to provide jobs;
created welfare, SSA,
business/farm aid, stock &
bank regulations
Conrad Albrizio, The New Deal, 1934
3. Keynesian Economics
►
►
Condemned Adam Smith’s “laissezfaire” theory of economics that,
during a time of depression, gov.
should not interfere & economy will
recover on its own
Argued that unemployment did not
come from overproduction, but from
a decline in demand, which could be
increased by putting people back to
work building public infrastructure
funded by the government (even if
gov had to go into debt to create
jobs).
Ch. 9.2:
The Rise of Dictatorial Regimes
I. The Rise of Dictators
1.
2.
By 1939, only two major
European states
remained democratic
(France & Britain)
Other European states
were ruled by dictators,
who led totalitarian
states:
► Communist States – USSR
led by Stalin
► Fascist States – Germany
(Hitler), Italy (Mussolini),
Spain (Franco)
A. Fascism
1.
►
►
►
►
►
Beliefs & Policies:
Militant political movement emphasizing loyalty
to the State & obedience/loyalty to the leader
Promises to revive economy, restore national
pride
Ideas attracted people affected by the
Depression & angry over Treaty of Versailles
Extreme form of nationalism & use of war as
instrument of policy
Active involvement of masses through use of
propaganda, rallies, uniforms, salutes
B. Fascism vs. Communism
A.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Similarities w/ Communism
Dictators, one-party rule,
censorship
Supremacy of the State
over the individual
Use of Secret Police force
Opposed to democracy &
individual rights
Differences w/ Communism
F: social class divisions w/
power to middle-classes,
industrialist, military,
aristocrats
C: classless society supported
by workers/peasants
F: extreme nationalists
C: internationalists – sought
worldwide revolution
B.
Create a Venn Diagram using the information you
learned about the similarities & differences between
Fascism & Communism
Fascism
Communism
II. Fascism in Italy
A.
1.
2.
3.
Mussolini established the
first European Fascist
movement in the 1920s
Severe economic problems:
unemployment & inflation
led to industrial &
agricultural workers’ strikes
& talk of revolution
Middle-class industrialists &
large landowners feared a
Communist takeover &
began to support
Mussolini’s Fascist
movement
Anger over the Treaty of
Versailles created
nationalism & converts to
the Fascist Party, which
promised more land for
Italy
B. Il Duce
1.
2.
3.
Mussolini’s followers
formed armed bands of
sqaudristi, Blackshirts,
who attacked Communists
& violently broke up
workers strikes; as
economic situation
worsened, popular support
for Fascists grew
By October, 1922:
Mussolini threatened the
King, Victor Emmanuel III,
to march on Rome if not
given power
The King made Mussolini
Prime Minister of Italy: Il
Duce
C. The Fascist State - Mussolini created a
Fascist dictatorship
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Gov had power to
censor/suspend any form of
media critical of Catholic
Church, monarchy, or state
He had ultimate authority to
create laws; Police could
arrest & imprison people for
any reason
All other political parties
outlawed
Established secret police:
OVRA used to monitor
political activities & enforce
policies
Used propaganda to spread
Fascist goals “Mussolini is
always right”
Creation of youth groups
D. Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939
Nationalists vs. Republicans
1.
2.
3.
In 1936, under General
Francisco Franco, the Spanish
army revolted against the
republican gov beginning a 3year Civil War
Foreign nations aided the
Republican gov, including the
U.S., Britain, France, and the
USSR
Fascist regimes in Italy &
Germany aided Franco’s
Nationalist forces
►
4.
The new (1935) German
Luftwaffe devastated Spanish
towns & gained critical
experience used later in WWII
By 1939, Franco captured
Madrid & seized power ending
the civil war & establishing a
Fascist dictatorship that lasted
until his death in 1975
Guernica, 1937, Pablo Picasso
When asked to explain his symbolism, Picasso remarked, "It isn't up to the painter
to define the symbols. Otherwise it would be better if he wrote them out in so
many words! The public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they
understand them."
Ch. 9.3: Hitler & Nazi
Germany
1921 - 1939
I. Hitler & His Views
A.
B.
Austrian-born (1889 –
1945), failed as an artist,
proudly served in
Germany army in WWI &
awarded Iron Cross
1919: joined the German
Workers’ Party, a rightwing nationalist party,
later called the Nazi
Party (National Socialist
German Workers’ Party)
1.
2.
Goals: to overturn Treaty
of Versailles & combat
Communism
Party had own militia: the
Storm Troopers, or
Brownshirts, led by Ernest
Rohm
C. The Beer Hall Putsch, Munich 1923
1.
2.
3.
Inspired by Mussolini’s march
on Rome, Hitler attempted a
coup against the Weimar
Republic
Hitler tried for treason, but
only sentenced to 5 years in
prison, & only served 9 mos.
He wrote Mein Kampf in jail:
extreme German nationalism,
anti-Semitism & antiCommunism. Used Social
Darwinism to justify the right
of “superior” nations to
lebensraum through territorial
expansion to E. Europe &
Russia. Outlined the belief in
Aryan superiority & the
German “master-race” and all
non-Aryans (Jews, Slavs,
Gypsies…) were subhuman
D. Rise of Nazism
1.
Hitler & the Nazi Party did not
gain popular support until
1932, when the effects of the
Depression halted Germany’s
economic recovery & U.S.
loans were recalled
►
2.
3.
4.
Unemployed was at 6mn by
1932
Hitler’s speeches appealed to
national pride, honor &
militarism & gained support of
industrial elites, landed
aristocracy & military leaders.
By 1932, the Nazis were the
largest party in the Reichstag,
holding 37% of seats.
Conservatives, convinced they
could control Hitler, pressured
President Paul von
Hindenburg to name Hitler
Chancellor in Jan. 1933
E. The Enabling Act, March 1933
1.
2.
One month after naming
Hitler Chancellor, a
“mysterious” fire burned
down the Reichstag in Feb.
1933 – the Nazi’s immediately
blame & begin arresting
Communists
March, 1933: 2/3 of Reichstag
vote to give Hitler dictatorial
powers
►
►
►
►
►
He banned all other political
parties
Created the SS
(Schutzstaffel) to arrest &
murder enemies
Use of the Gestapo, or secret
police
Banned workers’ strikes,
unions & gave gov authority
over business & labor
Created millions of jobs in
building & military, lowering
unemployment to under
500,000 by 1937
Hermann Goring,
Heinrich Himmler,
Head of Gestapo
head of SS
II. The Nazi State, 1933-1939
A.
1.
2.
3.
►
►
Hitler creates a totalitarian
state
He controlled all aspects of
German life by using
propaganda: burned books,
monitored churches, children
forced to join Hitler Youth
Concentration camps were
built for opponents to new
regime: 1st camp, Dachau
built in 1933
Anti-Semitism became part of
Nazi policy:
Jews became scapegoats:
blamed for defeat in WWI &
economic troubles
1935: Nuremberg Laws
passed depriving Jews of
citizenship
“The Poisonous Mushroom” Children’s Book
In the chart, the white figures represent "fullblooded" Germans, the black figures "full-blooded"
Jews, and the shaded figures "cross breeds"
(Mischlinge). Stadtarchiv Bielefeld, Germany
April 1, 1933
boycott of
Jewish
businesses
A couple is publicly humiliated. The non-Jewish
woman carries a sign reading "I am the greatest
swine and sleep only with Jews." The man's sign
reads, "As a Jew, I only take German girls up to
my room." Hulton Getty Picture Collection, London
Book Burnings, May 1933
Goebbels,
Nazi Minister
of
Propaganda,
at a speech
in Berlin to
burn “unGerman” &
immoral
books
B. Kristallnacht, Nov. 9, 1938
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
“Night of the Broken Glass”
Nazi Youth & German mobs
burned synagogues &
destroyed Jewish businesses
30,000 Jewish males were
sent to concentration camps;
nearly 100 died
Jews were blamed for the
damage caused & money from
insurance companies went
directly to the State
Considered the actual
beginning of the Holocaust
Jews were barred from public
transportation, schools, &
hospitals
Jews were encouraged to
“emigrate” from Germany
Impact of Kristallnacht
►
►
►
►
►
►
By now it is clear to Hitler and
his top advisors that forced
immigration of Jews out of the
Reich is not a feasible option.
Hitler is already considering
the invasion of Poland.
Numerous concentration
camps and forced labor camps
are already in operation.
The Nuremberg Laws are in
place.
The doctrine of lebensraum
has emerged as a guiding
principle of Hitler's ideology.
The passivity of the German
people in the face of the
events of Kristallnacht made it
clear that the Nazis would
encounter little opposition -even from the German
churches.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Jews were required to turn over
all precious metals to the
government.
Pensions for Jews dismissed from
civil service jobs were arbitrarily
reduced.
Jewish-owned bonds, stocks,
jewelry and art works can be
alienated only to the German
state.
Jews were physically segregated
within German towns.
The suspension of Jewish driver's
licenses.
The confiscation of Jewish-owned
radios.
A curfew to keep Jews of the
streets between 9:00 p.m. and
5:00 a.m. in the summer and
8:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. in the
winter.
Laws protecting tenants were
made non-applicable to Jewish
tenants.
Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art)
►
►
►
The exhibition opened in Munich
on July 19, 1937 and included
more than 650 paintings,
sculptures, prints, and books.
Among the 112 artists whose
works were exhibited by the
Nazis for ridicule, only 6 were
Jewish.
Hitler defined “degenerate art”
as works that “insult German
feeling, or destroy or confuse
natural form, or simply reveal
an absence of adequate manual
and artistic skill.”
Hitler and Joseph Goebbels
targeted modern “avant-garde”
art and the exhibition was
designed to show the inferiority
of the artists.
►
►
►
Another exhibition, Deutsche
Kunstausstellung (Great German
Art Exhibition) ran
simultaneously and showed
Nazi-approved conservative art,
although it received far less
viewers.
Entartete Kunst traveled
throughout Germany and
Austria and was seen by 3
million viewers.
The curators deliberately hung
the art askew and grafitti-ed
around the paintings.
Marc Chagall was born in Russia in 1887. His life was deeply rooted in Jewish
tradition and religion. His paintings are filled with a child-like glee, using crayon
colors and joyous renderings, which appear to be seen through the eyes of a
child. He believed that the spirituality of Art had to be universal and timeless. "It
always seemed to me, and it still does, that the Bible is the greatest source of
poetry that has ever existed. Since that time, I have been seeking to express this
philosophy in life and art.” SURREALIST.
(All text notes)
http://fcit.usf.edu/HOLOCAUST/ARTS/ARTDEGEN.HTM#MOVI
E
The German painter-poet Max Ernst was a member of the dada movement and a
founder of surrealism. He was a self-taught artist. He pioneered a method called
frottage, in which a sheet of paper is placed on the surface of an object and then
penciled over until the texture of the surface is transferred. In 1925, he showed
his work at the first surrealist painting exhibition in Paris.
http://www.mcs.csuhayward.edu/~malek/Ernst.html
Born in Moscow in 1866, Wassily Kandinsky played the piano and cello at an early age.
The influence of music in his art was profound; many of his paintings had musical
connotations: "Improvisations," "Impressions," and "Compositions." In 1895 Kandinsky
attended a French Impressionist exhibition where he saw Monet's "Haystacks at
Giverny." He was upset he had not recognized it as a haystack, and also thought the
painter had no right to paint in such an vague way. Yet he was intrigued by the
picture. A short time later he left Moscow for Germany to study sketching and drawing.
He is considered to be one of the founders of abstract art.
http://www.virtual-art-museum.com/u_03081_art_gallery.php
Paul Klee is ranked as one of the most original masters of contemporary
art. He was born in Bern, Switzerland and lived for many years in
Germany. He was one of the instructors at the Bauhaus. In 1931 he
began teaching at Dusseldorf Academy, but he was dismissed by the
Nazis, who termed his work "degenerate." In 1933, Klee went back to his
native Switzerland. He died on June 29, 1940.
http://www.virtual-art-museum.com/u_03014_art_gallery.php
Path to the Final Solution
► One
final note on the November 12 meeting
is of critical importance. In the meeting,
Goering announced, "I have received a
letter written on the Fuehrer's orders
requesting that the Jewish question be now,
once and for all, coordinated and solved one
way or another." The path to the "Final
Solution" has now been chosen. And, all the
bureaucratic mechanisms for its
implementation were now in place.