Free-riders
in the Workplace
Jun Kobayashi (Seikei U.)
June 26, 2005
Joint Conference, Sapporo
Outline
 Causes of Free-riding in Workplace?
 Dependent = Individual Free-riding
 Independent = Team Size,
Occupations, Motivations
 Complete Survey in a Japanese
Large Firm
Background
 Reducing Free-riders: Essential for
Efficient Management
 Japanese Management: Mutual
Monitoring → No Free-riders???
 Puzzle: “20% Contribute, 80% Shirk”
(Shiroyama)
Research Question
Who and Why Free-rides???
Definition
 Free-rider = Free-ride on Coworkers’
Contributions
 First Survey in Japan
Theoretical Literature
 Public Goods Provision:
Inexcludable→ Free-riders
 Olson:
Size↑→ Free-riders↑
 In Organizational Studies:
Shirking, Social Loafing, Withholding
efforts
Empirical Literature
 George 1992
Monitored, Involved↑→Free-riders↓
 Vane Dyne + LePine 1998
In-role/Extra-role Contributions
Correlate
 Takahashi 1997
Free-riders↑→ Energized↓
Research Question: Specified
 Yet Effects of Size: still Unknown
 In Japan: No Direct Measurement of
Free-riding
 So… Examine Effects of
 Size,
Occupations, Motivations
 Using Direct Measures
Hypotheses
 Size↑
Free-rider↑
 Outside Worker
(Less Monitored)
 White-collar
(Less Boundaries)
 Motivations↓
 Age,
Gender, Rank, Transfer
1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
4. Conclusion
Data
Complete Survey
 July 2004
 Questionnaire, Self-reported, 158 Q’s
 Anonymous (sealed envelop)
 All workers at 4 branches, Large Firm
 Full-time, Formal workers
 1,219 respondents (Response Rate =
98.1%)
Profiles
 1,154 (No Higher Managers)
 35.7 years old
 Male = 89.3%
 Lower Managers = 12.8%
 Inside = 54.8%
 White-collar = 66.2% (47.1% Clerks
and 19.1% Sales), Blue-collar =
33.8% (Maintenance)
Measures
Dependent: “In-role Contribution”
 We ask work that you should share in
a team.
 How much do your coworkers regard
you as doing it?
 Much More than expected = 6, More
= 5, Little More = 4,
 Little Less = 3, Less = 2, Much Less
=1
“Extra-role Contribution”
 We ask work that is not assigned but
someone should do, such as
receiving phones.
 How much do your coworkers regard
you as doing it?
 Much More than expected = 6, More
= 5, Little More = 4,
 Little Less = 3, Less = 2, Much Less
=1
Independent: “Team Size”
 With how many people do you do
work that you should share in a
team?
Motivations
 Average of (α= 0.90)
 “I
enjoy my work”
 “I thrive on my work”
 Yes = 5, Somewhat Yes = 4
 Neutral = 3
 Somewhat No = 2, No = 1
Statistical Models
 OLS Linear Regression
 Controlling variables: p<0.10
 VIF <1.6
1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
4. Conclusion
Descriptive Statistics
 In-role Contributors = 61.8%
 Extra-role Contributors = 51.9%
☆☆プ ラ ス ア ルフ ァ 協働
☆☆ノ ルマ 協働
500
600
500
400
400
300
度
数
度
数
300
200
200
100
100
平均値 =3.505
差 =1.17866
N =1,209
平均値 =3.7192標準偏
差 =1.0861
0
N =1,200
0
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
☆☆ノ ルマ 協働
5.00
6.00
7.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
☆☆プ ラ ス ア ルフ ァ 協働
6.00
7.00
Hypotheses (again)
 Size↑
Free-rider↑
 Outside Worker
(Less Monitored)
 White-collar
(Less Boundaries)
 Motivations↓
 Age,
Gender, Rank, Transfer
H1 Size
C ontribution
In-R ole
Extra-role
6
5
4
3
2
2
7
12 17
T eam S ize
22
In-role Extra-role
Age
.012**
Team Size
.004
.008†
Department Size –.002 –.004
R2
.012
.004
N
1133
1146
†p<.10, ＊.05, ＊＊.01, ＊＊＊.001
H2 Outside Workers
In-R ole
C ontribution
3.8
3.6
Extra-role
3.77
3.57
3.65
3.41
3.4
3.2
Inside
O utside
H3 White-collar Workers
C ontribution
In-R ole
4
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
Extra-role
3.92
3.7
3.61
3.4
B lue-collar W hite-collar
Age
Manager
Outside
White-collar
R2
N
In-role Extra-role
.011** –.011*
.26*
–.13* –.19**
–.31*** –.33***
.030
.026
1136
1145
†p<.10, ＊.05, ＊＊.01, ＊＊＊.001
H4 Motivations
C ontribution
In-R ole
Extra-role
4.50
3.89
4.00
3.53
3.63 3.71 3.56 3.66 3.70
3.
75
3.66
3.50
3.00
3.30 3.27
4.06 4.02
4.00
3.76
3.40 3.42 3.35
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
M otivations
Age
Outside
White-collar
Motivations
R2
N
In-role Extra-role
.011**
–.15* –.23**
–.28*** –.28***
.11*** .15***
.041
.040
1135
1150
†p<.10, ＊.05, ＊＊.01, ＊＊＊.001
1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
4. Conclusion
Summary of Results
Size
?
Outside
＋
＋
White-collar
Motivations
－
Free-rider
Conclusion
 No Clear Effects of Size
 Outside workers and White-collar
workers: Free-ride More
 Motivated workers: Free-ride Less
Future Topics
 Informal Sanctions?
 Organizational Differences?
 B/w
Firms, Branches, Workplaces
 Cultural Differences?