ENGINEERING GRAMMAR (Language and Learning Online)
Grammar for Engineering
In Engineering, you will often be required to write lab reports and
technical reports. As these form a major part of your assessment tasks,
the ability to write clearly in correct academic English is important. This
is not always easy, particularly for students for whom English is not
their first language. These pages contain a series of grammar lessons
on some common structures you will need to use when writing
Engineering reports.
Each unit begins with an explanation of the grammar point and rules for
using it (with examples taken from actual Engineering subjects),
followed by exercises to test your skill. A good follow-up exercise is to
check how well you have applied the grammar point in a piece of your
own writing, and correct it if necessary.
Choose from tutorials on parallel structure <www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/parallelstructure/index.xml> , articles <www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/articles/index.xml> ( a
and the), the passive voice <www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/passive/index.xml> , past
tenses <www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/tense/index.xml> , or making transitions
<www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/transitions/index.xml> using coordintors, connectors
and subordinators.
You can navigate through the tutorials using the menu on the left, but we suggest you work through each
of the sections in the given order, using the Next button on each page. .
Parallel structure
This tutorial contains two sections on parallel structure: recognising parallel structure
<www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/parallel-structure/1.xml> and using parallel structure
<www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/parallel-structure/2.xml> .
Each section contains grammar notes, examples, and exercises.
Recognising parallel structure
All three verbs are linked to the same subject. Therefore they must all take the same form.
Part of
speech
Subject
Sentence
An engineering
student
Verb
Verb
Verb
presents, analyses, and discusses
data in a project
report.
Both adjectives describe the same subject and are linked to the same form of the verb to be.
Subject
verb 'to be'
The lab equipment is
Adjective
outdated
Adjective
and inefficient.
In the following sentences, the parallel (matching) elements are in bold. Identify the grammatical
form of the words or phrases in bold from the dropdown list. The first one is done for you.
Example
Super T-Beams can lower costs and reduce construction time.

A bridge consists of superstructure and substructure.

Cycling is a healthy and environmentally friendly form of transport.

The professor is an excellent teacher and a respected researcher.

The aim of the experiment was to determine principal stresses and estimate the
magnitude of stresses.

The accuracy of results depends on the number of elements used, the size of the
elements, and the construction of the model.

Timeframes and site access must be considered when selecting a construction
method.
Now click on the verb or verb phrase that does the work of connecting the word groups marked in
bold. The example below highlights the verb can which connects both lower and reduce (can
lower, can reduce).
Example
Super T-Beams can lower costs and reduce construction time.
1.
2.
3.
4.
A bridge consists of superstructure and substructure.
Cycling is a healthy and environmentally friendly form of transport.
The professor is an excellent teacher and a respected researcher.
The aim of the experiment was to determine principal stresses and estimate the magnitude
of stresses.
5. The accuracy of results depends on the number of elements used, the size of the elements,
and the construction of the model.
6. Timeframes and site access must be considered when selecting a construction method.
Recognising parallel structure makes it easier to understand complex sentences. Highlight the
parallel elements in the following paragraph. The first one is done for you.
Example
Civil engineering is all around us. Industrial and commercial buildings, transport systems, water
supply, and waste disposal systems are all examples of civil engineering.
1. Expanding our cities and conserving our environment depend upon the work of the civil engineer.
2. Monash graduates work in all aspects of civil engineering including technical design, computer
simulation, site construction, project management, and finance.
3. In the past, civil engineering graduates have found work both in Australia and overseas.
Using parallel structure
Where there are two parallel elements, they must be joined with and or another suitable joining
word. Where there are more than two parallel elements, the final two are joined.
Examples
 The criteria to be considered are aesthetics, sustainability, and conservation.
 Students should set up the equipment, check it, then begin the experiment.
Click and drag the word from the box to the correct place in the sentence.
1. Scoria was used for the project because it is suitable available locally.
Drag word: and
2. The specimen was soaked in the solution placed in the box.
Drag word: then
3. The next section presents a list of equipment, a description of materials, an outline of the process.
Drag word: and
4. Finally, the sample is placed in the solution, soaked for at least 2 hours, dried.
Drag word: then
Two sentence patterns which require parallel structure are either... or and not only... but also.
Either... or describes a choice.
Example
They will either withdraw the product or redesign it.
Note that the word groups which follow both either and or must be parallel.
Part of speech
Sentence
connector
They will
either
verb
object
connector
verb
object
or
redesign
it.
withdraw the product
Describe these two choices by writing an either... or sentence in the box below.
1. apply for a postgraduate program
2. look for a job overseas
After graduation he will...
Not only... but also is a more emphatic way of saying and.
Example
He is not only an excellent teacher but also a respected researcher.
Note that the word groups which follow both not only and but also must be parallel.
Part of
speech
Sentence
connector
He
is
not only
noun phrase
an excellent
teacher
connector
but also
noun phrase
a respected
researcher.
Write a not only... but also sentence including these two points in the box below.
1. save money
2. help the environment
New technology should...
Items in a list must be in parallel form.
Incorrect
The green features include:
 materials should be sustainable
 rainwater collection tanks and recycled water
 installing solar panels
 replant trees in the construction area
Correct
The green features include:




use of sustainable materials
provision of rainwater collection tanks and recycled water
installation of solar panels
replanting of trees in the construction area
Correct the verb form in the following example of incorrect parallelism.
Example
The solutions suggested include: revise the existing design, create a new design, and keeping the
cost of materials down.
1. Correct form of revise
2. Correct form of create
Which of the following are good ways of making a list parallel? Choose one or more options from
the list below.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
The laboratory manager's recommendations were as follows:

the purchase of additional equipment

to employ a casual technician

training programs should be provided for students and staff
The laboratory manager's recommendations were as follows:

the purchase of additional equipment

the employment of a casual technician

the provision of training programs for students and staff
The laboratory manager's recommendations were as follows:

to purchase additional equipment

to employ a casual technician

to provide training programs for students and staff
The laboratory manager's recommendations were as follows:

additional equipment should be purchased

a casual technician should be employed

training programs should be provided for students and staff
Your answer:
Articles in Engineering
The correct use of articles conveys precise meanings in Engineering. Deciding whether to use a, an,
some, the or no article can be confusing.
Examples
Structural and stress analysis is a process used to study the distribution of forces through the
members of a structure.
Fibre reinforced plastic is an advanced composite material which has potential for the repair and
strengthening of structures.
Click on the highlighted text for an explanation.
This section takes you through a decision making process to help you work out when an article is needed,
and which article to use. You can look at the reference table for [1]countable and uncountable nouns
before we begin.
[1]
Countable nouns
Countable nouns
Reference
a. General
Singular
Plural
Noun
Uncountable nouns
Singular
a
computer
Plural
-
computers
a
computer
Plural
-
computers
Singular
the
computer
Plural
the
computers
b. Non-specific Singular
c. Specific
Article
Uncountable nouns
Reference
Article
Noun
a. General
-
information
b. Nonspecific
-
information
c. Specific
the
information
Is the noun countable or uncountable?
The first step is to determine whether the noun is countable or uncountable. You can use a dictionary to
check this.
Countable nouns can be either singular or plural



computer / computers
idea / ideas
information medium / information media
Examples




A computer can be used for the simulation
The students had several ideas for the project
Each group must choose one information medium for the project
Most engineers use computers nowadays
Uncountable nouns appear only in the singular form



information (not informations)
knowledge (not knowledges)
research (not researches)
Examples




The Internet gives people access to information.
The aim of the project is to gain knowledge about Global Positioning Systems.
The information I found on the Internet was very useful.
There seems to be a lot of research on the topic.
Articles with countable nouns
Click on the highlighted text to see the comments.
Countable nouns can be either singular or plural as you will [1]see in the table.

Countable nouns can take a, the or plural s.
[1]
Countable nouns
Reference
a. General
Singular
Plural
Noun
Singular
a
computer
Plural
-
computers
a
computer
Plural
some
computers
Singular
the
computer
Plural
the
computers
b. Non-specific Singular
c. Specific
Article
Articles with uncountable nouns
Click on the highlighted text to see the comments.
Uncountable nouns don't have a plural form as you will [1]see in the table.

Uncountable nouns can take the or no article.
[1]
Uncountable nouns
Reference
Article
Noun
a. General
-
information
b. Non-specific
-
information
c. Specific
the
information
Which article to use
How do you know which article to use? The choice depends largely on whether you are referring to the
noun in a general, non-specific or specific way.
a. General reference means you are referring to a noun in a general way.
b. Non-specific reference means you are referring to any one of many possible items or
introducing a noun for the first time in the text.
c. Specific reference means you are referring to a particular item or noun mentioned previously.
General reference
General reference means you are referring to a noun in a general way.


Countable nouns can have a or plural s.
Uncountable nouns have no article.
Countable nouns
Table for Countable nouns
Reference
a. General
Singular
Plural
Article
Noun
Singular
a
computer
Plural
-
computers
Uncountable nouns
Table for Uncountable nouns
Reference
a. General
Article
-
Noun
information
Examples
 A computer is a machine which is used...
 Computers are machines which are used...
 The Internet gives people access to information.
General reference is common in academic writing. It is used when giving general background or
theoretical information about a topic - for example, in the introduction to a report or in a literature review.
Example from a report on greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases trap heat from solar radiation, similar to the way glass panes trap heat in a
greenhouse.
Remove unnecessary articles
Click on the highlighted text to see the tables at the bottom of the page.
Correct the errors in the following sentences by clicking and dragging unnecessary definite
articles to the bin. Think about whether the noun is being referred to in a specific or non-specific
way. Refer to the [1]tables at the bottom for help.
1. Engineering students often have to give the oral presentations.
2. The library contains the information on many subjects.
3. In level 2, Civil Engineering students study the water systems and transportation.
4. Successful engineers have the good communication skills.
[1]
Countable nouns
Countable nouns
Reference
a. General
Singular
Plural
Noun
Uncountable nouns
Singular
a
computer
Plural
-
computers
a
computer
Plural
-
computers
Singular
the
computer
Plural
the
computers
b. Non-specific Singular
c. Specific
Article
Uncountable nouns
Reference
Article
Noun
a. General
-
information
b. Nonspecific
-
information
c. Specific
the
information
Non-specific reference
Non-specific reference means you are referring to any one of many possible items, or are introducing a
noun for the first time in the text.



Countable nouns can have a (single) or some (plural).
Uncountable nouns have some or no article.
However in scientific writing 'some' is rarely used.
Non-specific reference
Table for non-specific reference
Singular
Plural
Article
Noun
Singular
a
computer
Plural
-
computers
-
information
Examples
 Most offices have a computer
 There are computers in the library.
 I need information about student services.
Non specific reference is often the natural choice when describing a design, process or experimental
procedure.
Example from a lab report
A small piece of Sample B was placed in an ignition tube with one gram of clean sodium and heated.
Drag articles into place
Click on the highlighted text to see the comments.
Correct the errors with the following sentences by clicking and dragging an indefinite article to
the right place in the sentence. Think about whether each noun is being referred to in a general,
specific or non-specific way. Refer to the [1]tables for help.
[1]
Countable nouns
Countable nouns
Uncountable nouns
Reference
a. General
Singular
Plural
Noun
Uncountable nouns
Singular
a
computer
Plural
-
computers
a
computer
Plural
-
computers
Singular
the
computer
Plural
the
computers
b. Non-specific Singular
c. Specific
Article
Reference
Article
a. General
-
information
b. Nonspecific
-
information
c. Specific
the
information
1. If you can't find a book, ask member of the library staff
Drag word: a
2. In your report, you should give description of your experiment.
Drag word: a
3. Phillip is busy this semester because he is doing double degree.
Drag word: a
4. Aluminium is suitable material for aeronautics.
Drag word: a
Specific reference
Specific reference means referring to a particular item or previously mentioned noun.

Both countable and uncountable nouns use the
Noun
Countable nouns
Reference
c. Specific
Singular
Plural
Article
Noun
Singular
the
computer
Plural
the
computers
Uncountable nouns
Reference
c. Specific
Article
the
Noun
information
Specific reference applies when the audience knows exactly which item is referred to.
Examples
 The computer in the department office is new.
 Most students use the computers in the library.
 The information I found on the Internet was very useful.
Example from a lab report. The experiment investigated causes of corrosion using stainless steel
samples.
Cracks were observed in the stainless steel samples, which allowed H+ to make contact with the
steel, causing the corrosion rate to rise.
Superlatives are treated as specific references as there can only be one best, worst, greatest, least, most,
etc.
Example
Two models were developed in an attempt to obtain the most accurate readings in the highest
temperature range. Model 2 produced the best results.
First and second reference
The first time a single countable noun is introduced, use a. Thereafter, when referring to that same
item, use the.
Example
Television is now commonplace, but few people understand how it works. Inside the television, a tiny
camera breaks down pictures and sends them to a transmitter. Once the transmitter has received the
pictures, it transmits them to a receiver...
Fill in the blanks with a / an, the, or x (no article). Think about whether the noun is being referred
to in a general, non-specific or specific way. Then check your answers by clicking on the button
next to each box.
Making
distilled water
distilling flask is attached to
connected to
filled with
flask).
source of cold water and
water.
beaker is placed below it.
steam rises in
Bunsen burner. When
flask and passes through
condensed steam collected in
condenser is
flask is partially
thermometer is inserted through the stopper (
flask is heated with
steam.
cooled.
condenser, as shown in the diagram.
stopper seals
water boils, it becomes
condenser, where it is
beaker is distilled water.
(from Master, PA, (1986) Science, Medicine and Technology: English grammar and technical writing, Prentice-Hall Regents, New
Jersey.)
Check your understanding
Check your understanding of article use with general, non-specific and specific reference.
The following lines make up the introduction to a Civil Engineering project brief for the design of a
hospital building. Click and drag the article in the box to the correct place in each line.
1. Sunway Medical Centre is one of most rapidly growing hospitals in Malaysia.
Drag word: the
2. Due to recent population increase in the area serviced by Sunway,....
Drag word: a
3. The hospital is to build extension block adjacent to the existing building.
Drag word: an
4. The extension block is to be two storeys high and will contain hospital's Radiology and Pathology
departments.
Drag word: the
5. Two major criteria should be considered in design: aesthetics and sustainability.
Drag word: the
6. Nowadays traditional image of hospitals is changing; people expect to feel comfortable whether
admitted as patients or visiting friends.
Drag word: the
7. Therefore, both exterior and interior designs of the new building should be attractive and userfriendly.
Drag word: the
8. Sustainable development is necessity for the future.
Drag word: a
9. The new design should incorporate 'green building' technology for water recycling, energy
conservation, and disposal of waste.
Drag word: the
The used with specified nouns
The can mean "the one we are all familiar with".
For example, in this country "the dollar" means "the Australian dollar".
Examples
the market
the economy
the stock exchange
The is often used in science and technology to describe widely-known inventions
Examples
the computer
the telescope
the microchip
the Internet
The can mean "the only one" (whereas a can mean "one of many")
Examples
one of many
the only one
an engineer
an industry standard
a student
an environmentally friendly approach
a technologically advanced country
another change
(one of an unspecified number)
the chief engineer
the Building Code
the best student
the only successful approach
the most technologically advanced country
the other change
(one of two changes)
The can indicate that a noun is being used with a specific, countable meaning rather than a
general, uncountable meaning
Examples
specific, countable
general, uncountable
the Australian Conservation Society
the Japanese car industry
the information industry
the electronics industry
Australian society
Japanese industry
Australian industry
private industry
Articles with abbreviations
A useful guideline is that when a title includes a countable noun which indicates the type of entity,
the is usually needed.
Examples
the IMF
the IOC
the ABC
the USA
the UN(O)
the International Monetary Fund
the International Olympic Committee
the Australian Broadcasting Corporation
the United States of America
the United Nations Organisation
However, when the abbreviation is an acronym (a group of initials that can be pronounced like a
word), the is not used unless it is written out in full.
Examples
NATO
the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
ASEAN
the Association of South East Asian Nations
Articles with company names
Banks and newspapers usually take the.
Examples
the Reserve Bank
The Washington Post
The Age
Some major companies are known only by their initials and do not take the.
Examples
BP
IBM
BHP
When in doubt, consult M. Swan, (1996) Practical English Usage, Second edition, OUP, pp. 59-69.
Fill in the gaps in the following paragraphs with the appropriate article: a, an or the (or x for no
article). Then check your answers by clicking on the button
In December, after observing
next to each box.
UN climate change conference in Buenos Aires,
Environment Minister Ian Campbell said Australia wanted to engage in
new global agreement
after 2012, although its stance on signing the Kyoto Protocol, along with that of
unchanged.
USA, is
minister also appeared to step back from
Government's earlier rejection of
emissions trading market. Mr Campbell also expressed a desire to get Australia in at the forefront of
climate change. He told
really a world leader.
So why not ratify
costs on
Sunday Age that far from being
Kyoto Protocol?
global polluter, Australia was
Government claims that the protocol imposes unfair
economy, and that ratifying the treaty would drive
industry offshore.
Adapted from: The Sunday Age, 13 February, 2005.
Passive voice
Passive voice is used frequently in technical writing, where the focus is usually on what was done rather
than who did it. It is conventionally used to report experimental procedure and to avoid constant repetition
of I or we throughout the report, paper or thesis.
In order to use passive voice correctly, it is necessary to fully understand, and be able to recognise, the
difference between passive and active voice.
Active and passive voice
The active voice names an 'actor' which/who is the subject of the verb; the actor does the verb.


Who/What does the verb? If the answer is clear, the sentence is active. Note that often,
there is a direct object (DO) 'receiving' the action.
Part of sppech
Subject
Verb
Sentence
The students
tested
The samples
failed.
Who/What is the verb done to? This is the direct object.
Part of speech
Sentence

the samples.
Subject
Verb
Direct Object
The students
tested
the samples.
Where possible, use the active voice. It is direct, brief, and easy to understand.
The passive voice places the emphasis on the action rather than the actor.The direct object is
placed before the verb, which is given in the passive form. The subject, or actor, is usually not
mentioned.
Example
The samples were tested.
Table: Formation of the passive
Formation of the passive
The passive can use any tense of the verb to be
+ a Past participle
The load/s
is/are
was/were
calculated
The report/s
has been
have been
presented
The sample/s
will be
can be
tested
The result/s
is/are being
(should) have been
(could) have been
compared
Reasons for using the passive
1. The 'actor' is not known.
Oil was discovered off the coast of Australia.
The number of Internet users was estimated to be over one million.
2. The 'actor' is not important.
The report has been published.
The results will be presented at the conference.
3. It is considered desirable to conceal the identity of the 'actor'.
The results are invalid as the correct testing procedure was not followed.
Research funding will be cut next year.
4. An impersonal tone is needed for academic writing.
In this report, the stress fields in a C-shape plate will be analysed.
An impersonal tone is also used for process descriptions.
First, the raw materials are loaded into a container ...
5. A tactful tone is needed to smooth over an error or difficulty.
Compare these two examples.
Example of passive voice
The samples were not checked at the second stage . . .
Example of active voice
We forgot to check the samples . . .
Changing active to passive
Example of active voice
Part of speech
Subject
Verb
Object
Sentence
The group
will present
the report
next week.
STEP 1: move the object to the subject position
The report ...
STEP 2: change the verb to the passive, making sure that BE takes the same tense as the verb in the
active sentence
The report will be presented ...
STEP 3: drop the subject
Example of passive voice without the subject
The report will be presented next week.
or move it to a position after the verb
Example of passive voice with the subject
The report will be presented by the group next week.
These sentences are in the active voice. But which tense? First use the drop downs to choose the
verb tense of the active sentence.
1. For the purposes of this report I surveyed six companies.
Tense:
2. We tested the samples under various conditions.
Tense:
3. The department will announce the results next Tuesday.
Tense:
4. A company in Korea manufactures this equipment.
Tense:
5. You did not inform us about the results of the survey.
Tense:
Now fill in the blanks to change the verbs in the sentences above from active voice to passive
voice. Remember to keep the verb in the same tense. Then check your answers by clicking on the
button
next to each box.
1. Six companies
2. The samples
3. The results
(test) under various conditions.
(announce) next Tuesday.
4. The equipment
5. We
(survey) for the purpose of this report.
(manufacture) by a company in Korea.
(not inform) about the results of the survey.
Verbs which can't be used in the passive
Most verbs can be changed from the active to the passive.
Active voice
Sentence
Passive voice
>
We tested the samples.
The samples were tested.
If the verb can be followed by a direct object (a direct object answers the question who or what
after the verb) it can be made passive.
Part of speech
Senetnce
These difficulties
verb
direct object
may delay
the completion of the project.
But the verb occur, for example, cannot take a direct object.
Part of speech
Verb
Indirect object
Sentence
A solution
occurred
to him.
This cannot be transformed to the passive since there is no direct object to become the subject.
Some verbs which can be used only in the active are: occur, rise, happen, arise, fall, exist, consist
(of), depend (on), result (from).
Active and passive verbs
Active (correct)
Passive (incorrect)
Problems
may
occur
happen
arise
exist
Problems may be
occurred
happened
arisen
existed
They
consist of They are
consist of
depend
depend on
on
Note: 'They are dependent on . . .' is correct since
'dependent' is an adjective.
A special case:
Part of speech
Subject
Verb
Object
Sentence
They
lack
resources.
Lack can take a direct object but cannot be transformed to the passive:
Resources are lacked (incorrect).
However, you could write:
Resources are lacking.
Label these sentences correct or incorrect
1. These problems may be happened quite frequently.
2. Problems may arise in the early stages.
3. The solution occurred to him yesterday.
4. Failure may be occurred during heating.
5. Difficulties may be existed.
6. Difficulties may arise.
Concern and involve
Whether or not they can be used in the passive depends on the meaning.
To involve has three meanings:
1. To participate, to take part
2. To include
3. To require
Only the first meaning, to participate, to take part can be used in the passive form.
This week, students are involved in lab work.
The active voice must be used with the second meaning, to include.
Example
He often involves his students in his research.
The active voice must also be used with the third meaning, to require.
Example
The project involves buying new software.
Use the correct form of involve (active or passive) in the following sentences.
1. Effective group leadership
2. A good leader
a variety of skills.
all group members in decision making.
3. All members of the group should
in project planning.
Concerned about means 'worried about'. Concerned with means 'involved in'.
The passive voice can be used with both meanings.
Complete these sentences with the correct preposition (with or about) in the following sentences.
1. The students are concerned
2. Engineers nowadays are concerned
their next assignment.
the development of sustainable technology.
Past tenses
There are many different ways of indicating that an event took place in the past. In your writing for
engineering, you can use the simple past
<www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/tense/1.xml> , present perfect
<www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/tense/2.xml> , present perfect progressive
<www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/tense/3.xml> , or the past perfect progressive
<www.monash.edu/lls/llonline/grammar/engineering/tense/4.xml> . All of these different past tenses have
slightly different meanings in terms of the chronology - or the order - in which things happened. Check out
these tutorials to learn more about how to use these different tenses effectively.
The past simple tense
The past simple describes completed actions and past situations.
Examples
 In this experiment, two plastics and one ceramic were investigated.
 The results showed that both components were polymers.
 He graduated from Monash in 1999.
NOTE: The time referred to must be clear; either specified: a year ago;from 1993 to 1995;
throughout the 1980s or implied: early studies, in this experiment.
In academic writing, the past simple may be used to describe research conducted in the past if it
is not strongly linked to the present situation.
Examples
 Zhao and Hancock (1995b) proposed design rules for tear-out failure in steel connections.
 The yield strength of steels was found by Davis (1992) to range from...
In report writing, past tense verbs may be used in the description of method.
Examples
 The researchers surveyed twenty organisations...
 The samples were tested under two different conditions.
They may also be used in the findings.
Examples
 The survey revealed that...
 Results showed that...
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the correct form of the verb. Then check your
answers by clicking on the button
1. Cook (1995)
next to each box.
(claim) that the solution
2. Early studies by Blake and Iwaki
3. Haberditzl
(can) be improved by...
(find) that...
(show) that the velocity of many enzyme reactions
the end product
(be slowed down) if
(have) an increased paramagnetism.
The present perfect tense
The present perfect tense links the past and the present.
The present perfect tense
I / We
have been
She / He
has
completed
received
You / They have had
It is used to refer to:



an action or situation which began in the past and is still current
an action or event which took place in the past, where the exact time of the event is not specified
or not clear
an action or event which has just happened
Examples
 He has lived here since he was young. (came many years ago, still here)
 For the past two years she has worked at the stock exchange. (started two years ago, still
there)
 I have been to London, but I haven't been to New York. (at some/any time in my life)
 Have you found the book you were looking for? (between the time you started looking and now)
 She has just arrived. (a short time ago; here she is)
 We have finished the management report! (a short time ago; here it is)
In academic or technical writing the present perfect tense is often used to report on recent
research or trends.
Examples
 Recent studies have shown that more efficient water management will be needed as global
warming increases.
 In the past five years several car manufacturers have developed hybrid vehicles.
Notes

Every present perfect verb has two parts:
1. have/has always in present tense
2. past participle of the main verb (been, seen, done, found, studied, written, etc.)

The following words are often used with the present perfect: since, for, recent, recently, just,
ever, yet, already
1. What word does Sentence 1 use as the present perfect indicator?
2. What word does Sentence 2 use as the present perfect indicator?
Change each verb to the present perfect form. Then check your answers by clicking on the button
next to each box.
1. In recent years, the emphasis on sustainability in Civil Engineering
significantly.
2. Engineers Without Borders is a not-for-profit organisation which
countries since 2001.
3. Few researchers
4. The Kyoto Protocol
countries.
5. Group 1
(increase)
(work) in developing
(investigate) the possibility of human-like locomotion in robots.
(not achieve) the intended results as it has not been ratified by all
(complete) the first assignment, but Group 2
(not start)yet.
Past simple or present perfect? Click one of the two forms of the verbs in brackets to select the
correct tense. The first two have been done for you.
1. All samples ( failed / have failed) under the first test condition.
Reason
Because we have the results, it is clear that the testing is complete; that is, past and finished.
2. Recent studies (showed / have shown) that...
Reason
It is unclear exactly when the studies were carried out.
1. Research conducted in the 1990s ( showed / has shown) that...
Reason
The 1990s are past and finished.
2. The studies ( were not completed / have not been completed) yet.
Reason
The word 'yet' shows that the timeframe for the studies is not past.
3. Two years ago, researchers ( demonstrated / have demonstrated) the link between...
Reason
'Two years ago' is past and finished.
4. Over the past six years, there ( were / have been) several exciting developments in the field of
mechatronics.
Reason
The exact times of the developments are not specified.
5. Lewis's (2004) investigation ( proved / has proved) the effect of...
Reason
The exact year is given.
6. An investigation ( was carried out / has been carried out) recently into...
Reason
'Recently' is the hint.
The following news report, which is an update on a major building project, uses both past simple
and present prefect tenses. Write the correct tense of the verb in each gap. Where the passive
voice is needed, be is given with the verb in brackets. Then check your answers by clicking on the
button
next to each box.
The board of directors of Medway Medical Centre
(announce) twelve months ago that an
extension block would be built in the grounds beside the existing building. Although funding
yet
(be approved), ProTec Engineering
Bernard Wilkes,
not
(complete) the design. The hospital CEO, Mr
(release) the design at a press conference yesterday.
While the new building is designed to blend aesthetically with the older building, Mr Wilkes
(emphasise) yesterday that sustainability was one of the key design criteria. 'Green building technology
(be incorporated) at all stages of the design, as we
project.'
(request) at the beginning of the
Present perfect progressive
The present perfect tense can also be used in the progressive form. This is used to refer to situations
where the action is ongoing at the current time, when there is also reference to the length of time it has
been ongoing.
Examples
Current situation: Researchers are investigating clean energy sources.
Since becoming aware of global warming, researchers have been investigating clean energy
sources to replace fossil fuels.
Current situation: She is working on her PhD.
She has been working on her PhD for the past 12 months.
Sample sentences
1. He has been with Monash for seven years.
2. She has worked here since she sold her business.
3. Research funding has increased in recent years.
4. We have completed the report and will submit it tomorrow
5. The study has now been completed and a paper has been submitted for review.
Refer to the numbered sentences above to answer the following questions. You can choose more
than one option.
1. Which sentences describe a continuing situation?
2. Which sentences describe recent actions?
Past perfect and past perfect progressive
The past perfect is used to refer to an event or situation which took place before another past
event.
Examples
 Although she had considered post-graduate study, at the end of the year she decided to look
for a job.
 By the time he arrived, the lecture had already started.
The order of information in the sentence may be reversed.
Example
The lecture had already started by the time he arrived.
Note: The past perfect is usually used in conjunction with a past simple verb. Both describe past
actions or situations, but one event occurred earlier than the other.
Sample Sentences
1. By the time he began writing the report, he had completed most of his experiments.
2. Before the new equipment was installed, lab work had been very slow.
Here is a timeline for Sentence 1
earlier past
|
completed most
experiments
(event 1)
_
more recent past
|
began writing
(event 2)
Click to select the event (subject plus verb) which occurred first in the following sentences.
1. Several senior engineers had left the company by the time the new CEO arrived.
2. It was announced yesterday that funding had been withdrawn from the project.
3. Until the new database was developed, the staff had struggled to keep student records up to
date.
Fill in the blanks with the correct past and past perfect verb forms.
1. When he
2. She
(arrive), the meeting
(tell) me that she
3. Yesterday she
results.
(start).
(find) a job.
(report) that a number of errors
(be identified) in the analysis of
Past perfect progressive
The past perfect tense also has a progressive form. This is used to refer to situations where the earlier
event was an ongoing action which had been ongoing for a period of time before the simple past event.
Examples
 Although the students had been working on the project for six weeks, their report was not
ready by the due date.
 Before the hydrogen project began, the engineers had been working on hybrid technology.
Transition signals
Compare Paragraphs 1 and 2. Both give the same information, yet one is easier to follow because
it contains transition signals like for example to lead the reader from one idea to the next.
Paragraph 1
A difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the salinity varies in different climate zones.
The Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one quarter as saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East.
There are two reasons for this. In warm climates, water evaporates rapidly. The concentration of salt is
greater than that in cold climate zones, where water evaporates slowly. In hot areas the surrounding
land is dry and does not contribute much fresh water to dilute the salty seawater. The runoff created
by melting snow in cold areas adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline seawater.
(adapted from Oshima and Hogue, 1999)
Notice that the second paragraph is more coherent. Click on the transition signals in the
paragraph below.
Paragraph 2
Another difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the salinity varies in different climate
zones. For example, the Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one quarter as saline as the Red Sea in the
Middle East. There are two reasons for this. First of all, in warm climates, water evaporates rapidly;
therefore, the concentration of salt is greater than that in cold climate zones, where water evaporates
slowly. Secondly, in hot areas the surrounding land is dry and consequently does not contribute much
fresh water to dilute the salty seawater. In contrast, the runoff created by melting snow in cold areas adds
a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline seawater.
(adapted from Oshima and Hogue, 1999)
Coordinators
Coordinators join two independent clauses to form one compound sentence. They cannot be used
as transition signals between two sentences containing one independent clause each. Some
examples of coordinators are and, but, yet, or, nor, for, so.
Example 1
Example table for independent clause
independent clause
independent clause
In cold climates, water evaporates slowly. Melting snow adds runoff to the sea.
Correct
In cold climates, water evaporates slowly and melting snow adds runoff to the sea.
Incorrect
In cold climates water evaporates slowly. And melting snow adds runoff to the sea.
(adapted from Oshima and Hogue, 1999)
Example 2
Example table for independent clause
independent clause
independent clause
In hot climates water evaporates quickly. The oceans have higher salinity.
Correct
In hot climates water evaporates quickly, so the oceans have higher salinity.
Incorrect
In hot climates water evaporates quickly. So the oceans have higher salinity.
(adapted from Oshima and Hogue, 1999)
Select the correct method of joining the following sentences.
1. Traffic-related air pollution is a serious problem in many countries. It is getting worse.
Traffic-related air pollution is a serious problem in many countries. And it is getting worse.
Traffic-related air pollution is a serious problem in many countries, and it is getting worse.
2. Bicycle holding rails are now installed at many intersections. Cyclists can stop without having to
dismount.
Bicycle holding rails are now installed at many intersections, so cyclists can stop without having
to dismount.
Bicycle holding rails are now installed at many intersections. So cyclists can stop without having
to dismount.
Sentence connectors
Sentence connectors form a bridge between two independent clauses. Some examples: however,
therefore, furthermore, for example, on the other hand, in addition, still, otherwise, that is.
a. to form one compound sentence, punctuated with a semicolon (;) and a comma (,)
o In hot climates water evaporates quickly; therefore, the concentration of salt is greater.
o Ocean salinity varies in different climate zones; for example, the Baltic Sea is much less
saline than the Red Sea.
b. to form two sentences, the second of which begins with the sentence connector followed
by a comma (,)
o In hot climates water evaporates quickly. Therefore, the oceans are more saline.
o Ocean salinity varies in different climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea is much less
saline than the Red Sea.
Select the correct method of joining the following sentences.
1. Many local councils have taken steps to encourage the use of bicycles. Cycling lanes have been
added to many major roads.
Many local councils have taken steps to encourage the use of bicycles, for example cycling lanes
have been added to many major roads.
Many local councils have taken steps to encourage the use of bicycles; for example, cycling lanes
have been added to many major roads.
2. Cycling is being encouraged as it has the potential to ease traffic congestion and air pollution.
The high number of accidents is a concern.
Cycling is being encouraged as it has the potential to ease traffic congestion and air pollution.
However, the high number of accidents is a concern.
Cycling is being encouraged as it has the potential to ease traffic congestion and air pollution.
However the high number of accidents is a concern.
Subordinators
Subordinators join two clauses in one complex sentence. As these words introduce a dependent
clause (one which cannot stand alone as a sentence), both clauses must be combined in one
sentence. Some examples: because, after, since, as, although, if, when, so that.
a. Examples with the dependent clause at the beginning of the sentence, followed by a
comma
o Because water evaporates rapidly in hot climates, the surrounding oceans have higher
salinity.
o If the climate is cold, the surrounding ocean will be less saline.
b. Examples with the dependent clause last, in which case no comma is used
o Oceans in hot climates have higher salinity because the water evaporates more rapidly.
o The surrounding ocean will be less saline if the climate is cold.
Identify the correct method of joining the following sentences.
1. Holding rails can increase cyclist safety. Many cyclists prefer not to use them.
Although, holding rails can increase cyclist safety many cyclists prefer not to use them.
Although holding rails can increase cyclist safety, many cyclists prefer not to use them.
2. Pedestrians also complain about holding rails. They restrict space at intersections.
Pedestrians also complain about holding rails, because they restrict space at intersections.
Pedestrians also complain about holding rails because they restrict space at intersection.
As for other subordinators, whereas and while introduce a dependent clause (one which cannot
stand alone as a sentence), so both clauses must be combined in one sentence.
Unlike the examples above, however, the two clauses must be separated by a comma whatever
the position of the subordinate clause within the sentence.
a. Examples with the dependent clause at the beginning of the sentence
o While water evaporates rapidly in hot climates, in cold climates it evaporates slowly.
b. Examples with the dependent clause last
o In cold climates water evaporates slowly, whereas in hot climates it evaporates rapidly.
Decide whether the connectors are used correctly or incorrectly in the following sentences.
1. Gasoline powered vehicles are an essential part of our transport system however there is
increasing awareness that something must be done to reduce the pollutants they produce.
2. While work is progressing slowly on the development of a hydrogen fuel system, several car
manufacturers have successfully developed cleaner hybrid gas/electric cars.
3. Several models are already available; however, consumers are slow to make the change.
4. Many people are unable to buy these clean cars. Because the cost is still 30% higher than that of
comparable combustion engine cars.
5. Governments should take steps to make clean cars more affordable, for example by subsidising
the manufacturing costs or imposing a pollution tax on older gasoline and diesel vehicles.
6. Many governments are hesitating to take such steps as they are afraid that a changeover would
result in high job losses. Moreover, they are unwilling to upset the powerful oil lobbies.
Acknowledgements:
Oshima, A and Hogue, A, 1999, Writing Academic English, 3rd ed., Adison, Wesley, Longman, White Plains N.Y.
Swan, M, 1995, Practical English Usage, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford.
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