Chapter One
REVIEW
OF THE
RELATED
LITERATURE
Chapter
One
Review of the Related Literature
Chapter One: Review of the Related Literature
1.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a comprehensive overview of the literature pertaining to
previous outcomes in the field of teaching the speaking skill for Business English (BE)
language learners. Emphasis is put on doing some defining, some theorizing, and also
some explaining. The rationale behind this is to sustain a need to learn about concepts,
arguments and theories covered by specialists in the teaching of the speaking skill for BE
learners so that to build an adequate base from which to move through the rest of the
research.
Discussing aspects of Business English language teaching will hopefully be
relevant to the flow of discussion on investigating speaking performance deficiency
among Algerians Learners of Business English at the master level.
1.2 Surveying the Terrain of English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
1.2 .1 Introduction
To begin looking at Business English Language Teaching, one must look first at
the umbrella which envelops all English specific-based language teaching activities. In the
field of EFL, specific teaching activities are undertaken through a recently emerging type
of language teaching namely English for specific purposes (ESP).
Research on English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has been attracting a great deal of
attention in English language education over the past two decades. From the early 1960’s1,
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of the most prominent
areas of language education today. Its development is reflected in the increasing number
of students interested in undertaking research in ESP and in the number of ESP courses
1
Since 1960s, English for Specific Purpose (ESP) has been progressively growing and has eventually come
to play a major part in English Language Teaching (ELT) This is clearly reflected in Worldwide academic
settings where some universities started to offer MAs in ESP (e.g. University of Birmingham, and Aston
University in the UK) (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).
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offered for international students in English and non English -speaking countries
(Harding, 2007; Hyland, 2006; Orr, 2008).
The growth of ESP can also be observed from the publication of international
journals (e.g., English for Specific Purposes and The Asian ESP Journal) which are
dedicated to identifying aspects of ESP and encouraging and expanding the practice of
ESP worldwide2.
In Algeria, the growth of ESP in the past five years (specifically after 2004 3) has
been rapid and definite especially after its inclusion in most LMD programs taught in all
the English departments of Algerian Universities. The shift of the instructional focus from
English for General Purposes4 (EGP) to ESP aims to increase students’ motivation for
specific English learning and help students prepare for the demands of English in their
future careers.
1.2 .2 What is ESP?
With the growing demand for English courses tailored to specific needs, new ideas
began to emerge in the study of language. Traditionally speaking, research on the English
language focused on describing the rules of English usage. Yet, emerging studies shifted
attention away from defining the features of language usage to discovering the different
ways in which language is actually manifested in real communication contexts5. This
phenomenon, along with the new developments in educational psychology, contributed to
the rise of ESP.
English for Specific Purposes or English for Special Purposes (ESP) has developed
gradually and gained terrain among those interested in the activities of the discipline. In
In particular, Dudley-Evans and St. John’s (1998) theories on the “absolute characteristics” of ESP can
help provide a rationale for the rapid growth of ESP worldwide. The “absolute characteristics” illustrate
that an ESP approach concerns not only learners’ language issues, but also the design of the methodology
and activities related to students’ disciplines. Most importantly, ESP views students’ needs as the first
priority.
3 2004: Implementation of the LMD system of Algeria.
4 The question that is discussed permanently, among the scholarly community, reflects on the difference
between EGP and ESP. On the issues [to what extent EGP is different from ESP], Hutchinson & Waters
argues (1987:18-19): “In theory, nothing, in practice, a great deal”.
5 See Widdowson (1978).
2
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the following section, we will highlight a number of definitions as to what is ESP and how
ESP is different from EGP.
Tracing the historical background of ESP, Hutchinson & Waters (1987) identifies
three main movements contributing to the emergence of all ESP:
• the demands of a “brave new world,”
(1)
• a revolution in linguistics, and
(2)
• an increased focus on the learner
(3)
.
Figure 1.1: ESP Historical Movements (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987)
Wright (1992:03) defines the concept of English for Specific Purposes as follows:
“ESP is, basically, language learning which has its focus on
all aspects of language pertaining to a particular field of
human activity, while taking into account the time constraints
imposed by learners”.
Orr (1998) goes further on clarifying the line of demarcation between ESP and
EGP stating that:
“English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is research and
instruction that builds on EGP and is designed to prepare
students or working adults for the English used in specific
disciplines, vocations, or professions to accomplish specific
purposes”
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It has been argued that ESP is associated with mature learners by and large,
because it has a strong relationship with specialization in different fields of concern.
Dudley – Evans, (1998), coeditor of the ESP Journal, proposes a comprehensive definition
of ESP in terms of ‘absolute’ and ‘variable’ characteristics, here is Dudley – Evans’s
definition summarized in the following table:
Absolute
Characteristics
ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners
ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the
discipline it serves
ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms
of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.
Variable
Characteristics
ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines
ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology
from that of General English
ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level
institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for
learners at secondary school level
. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students
Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language
systems
Table 1.1: ESP in terms of ‘Absolute’ and ‘Variable’ Characteristics
(Evans, 1998)
Hutchinson & Waters, (1987) defines also ESP in terms of a methodology which
has widely spread after World War II at the time when English language has globally
spread and became the primary means of international communications in science,
business, education, and medicine. It is thanks to this new methodology that English has
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become a global channel for communication and is now the main language of most print:
specialised and non-specialised publications6.
Although ESP is a controversial issue7, there is much misinterpretation concerning
the exact definition of ESP. In fact, there is a hot debate whether or not English for
Academic Purposes (EAP) could be considered part of ESP in general. Some scholars
described ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could be
specified.
Mackay & Mountford (1978: 2) view ESP an oriented domain towards the learners
needs8. They define ESP as the teaching of English for a “clearly utilitarian purpose”.
The purpose they refer to is defined by the needs of the learners, which could be
academic, occupational, or scientific. These needs in turn determine the content of the
ESP curriculum to be taught and learnt.
Mackay & Mountford also defined ESP and the “special language” that takes
place in specific settings by certain participants. They claimed that those participants are
usually matures. They focused on adults because adults are usually “highly conscious” of
the reasons to achieve English proficiency in the very field of their specialization.
Inevitably, adults make use of the specialized language in authentic situations, because the
activities of their specialization compelled to use the appropriate ESP.
1.3 Business English
1.3.1 Introduction
Business English is a widely used term among practioners than theorists or
language researchers. Many would use the term to refer to courses offered by universities,
6
More than two-thirds of the world's professionals and scientists read in English; about eighty per cent of
online information is in English; and about eighty per cent of the approximately 40 million of internet users
communicate in English (Crystal, 1995; Graddol, 1997).
7 Defining ESP has proven to be so problematic. For those researchers who are producing a simple and
straightforward definition of ESP, the task is not that easy (Strevens, 1987: 109)
8 In terms of ESP's main characteristics, there is, however, general consensus among ESP researchers that
the learners' needs in ESP is paramount and it has been the driving force in any ESP course design since the
emergence of ESP courses in the 1960s. (See ,for example, Strevens, 1988 ; Evans and St John,1998 )
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colleges, institutions and schools to students interested in proficiency and mastery in
business English.
Yet, despite the enormous interest, little has been produced on the subject matter.
Picket (1986: 12) wrote that “there is no point in…in pretending that Business English can
neatly be categorized. It will always consist of what thousands of teachers are actually
teaching”. In the coming part, we will shed the light on business English as a core
component of this research’s perspectives.
1.3.2 ESP Divisions
Context is central in ESP. In fact, ESP activities have to be presented by
considering real or authentic context parameters. According to Hutchinson & Waters
(1987) there exists a crucial point which has to be taken into consideration in teaching
ESP is to use authentic materials which will induce learners to acquire and develop
relevant information and strategies for their jobs.
It is because of the relevance of context in an ESP teaching learning situation, ESP
researchers9 opted for a division of the field as exemplified in the following figure:
EAP
ESP
EOP
Figure 1.2: ESP Divisions (Munby, 1978)
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is divided into English for Occupational
Purposes (EOP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP)10. Objectives for both ESP
9
10
See, for example, Flanegin & Rudd, 2000; Goffman, 1979; Pakir, 1999, Puvenesvary, 2003…etc.
Called also English for General Purpses (EGP) by Orr (1998).
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divisions are to equip the learners with relevant tools and strategies to be able to
communicate, read, and write better so they can perform in their ESP Worlds,
appropriately and successfully.
EAP, on the one hand, is a kind of courses designed to help the learners to cope
with their intended courses so as to be more effective in their everyday lives. Orr (1998)
sates that:
“English for General Purposes (EGP) is essentially the English
language education in junior and senior high schools. Students
are introduced to the sounds and symbols of English, as well as
to the lexical/grammatical/rhetorical elements that compose
spoken and written discourse … University instruction that
introduces students to common features of academic discourse
in the sciences or humanities, frequently called English for
Academic Purposes (EAP), is equally ESP.”
EOP, on the other hand, is “…where the participant needs English to perform all
or part of his occupational duties”11. We may identify different types of EOP including
vocational English (e.g. English for tourism, aviation, and nursing), professional English
(e.g. English for doctors, lawyers), and business English which is at the heart of this study.
1.3.3 Business English and ESP
Business English is one of the specific areas of EOP12 which represents one of the
major divisions of ESP. BE must be seen in the overall context of ESP as it shares many
of its specificities in terms of needs analysis, syllabus design, course design, and materials
selection and development. However, Ellis and Johnson (2002) state:
11
Munby (1978:55)
Several studies (Flanegin and Rudd, 2000; Goffman, 1979; Pakir, 1999, Puvenesvary, 2003) have been
conducted on the importance of English in the occupational fields. Flanegin and Rudd (2000) discuss the
need and importance of English skills in all professions. In addition, they emphasize on the importance of
communication skills in the business and management fields by suggesting some solutions to enable
students to be good communicators in business majors. Goffman (1979) indicates that business negotiations
are carried out and letters are usually written in English. This sometimes discomforts those whose first
language is not English.
12
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‘Business English differs from other varieties of ESP in that it is
often a mix of specific content (relating to a particular job area
or industry), and general content (relating to general ability to
communicate more effectively, especially in the business
situations’
At present, BE is highly recognized among the scholarly community as one of the
most distinct and popular disciplines. Statistics shows that more than 900 universities
worldwide offer ESP and BE.
Therefore, in line with the growing popularity of BE, it is of great significance to
study on how to promote BE teaching and learning in Algeria and elsewhere.
1.3.4 Business English: A Definition
Business English remains a little researched and ill-defined area of ESP. For us, to
chose one definition for BE is a tough mission because of the diversity of views. Some
consider it as a register; others define it as a linguistic need to meet the challenges of
business communication. Yet, Most if not all, share the point that the general
understanding of Business English is based on a number of characteristics. The Following
could be summarized as the fundamental features of BE:
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Purposefulness
General
Content
Specific
Content
BE
Economy
&
Clarity
Social
Dimensions
Figure 1.3: Business English Fundamental Features13
•
Purposefulness14 : : interactions in a business setting have a sense of purpose that
is the context of all business communication;
•
Economy & Clarity: Business communication requires language to be clear,
economical and well-organized because long and ambiguous messages involve
greater costs;
•
Specific Content: Each BE content is specific and tailored to meet the learners’
business English language needs and objectives;
•
General Content15: Based on the learners’ specific BE needs, BE syllabus
designers include general or basic English content as part of the reinforcement
activities administered to sustain a need for proper everyday communication skills
among BE learners ;
13
See Ellis & Johnson, 1994; Donna, 2000; Edwards, 2000; Hemais, 2001; Charteris-Black & Ennis, 2001;
Fuertes-Olivera & PizarroSánchez, 2002; Fuertes-Olivera & Gómez Martínez, 2004.
14 Widdowson (1983:25-26) states: “Purpose in ESP means practical use to which the language will be put
in achieving occupational and academic aims”.
15 Ellis and Johnson (2002: 10) state: “Business English differs from other varieties of ESP in that it is often
a mix of specific content (relating to a particular job area or industry), and general content (relating to
general ability to communicate more effectively, especially in the business situations”
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Social Dimensions: in the business world, communication is always influenced by
the social context in which it takes place. Social skills of business people are
needed to develop contacts with people for business objectives.
It may be argued that BE characteristics should be incorporated in any course or
syllabus design to achieve competency. Business English should also be acknowledged as
a major actor in the process of promoting foreign investments especially in countries
where English is not the first language.
In the next section, we will try to shed the light on Business English language
teaching worldwide and in Algeria.
1.4. Business English and the Teaching/ Learning Paradigms
1.4.1Teaching Business English
With the accelerating rate of globalization, business exchanges are carried out
across the borders, as a result there is a growing demand for talented professionals both in
English and in Business English. We can see that, at present, BE courses are offered by
many language schools and Universities in the aim of meeting the need for the
professional market.
Research delineating differences between Business English teaching and General
English teaching demonstrates that Business English is different from General English at
least in such aspects as in the role of the teacher, in course design, in teaching models,
etc., thus different teaching methods should be applied in order to realize expected
teaching goals of business courses.
There have been many developments in the ways in which teachers and course
designers look at Business English. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, special vocabulary
was considered as what distinguishes Business English (BE) from General English (GE).
A second approach placed a greater emphasis on training “the skills of communication in
English speaking, writing, listening and reading within a business context”. In the mid1970s and 1980s, following the trends in GE, BE teaching began to focus more and more
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on functional areas-formulaic language for recommending, giving opinions, showing
agreement, and so on. During the 1980s the development of company training programs
began to provide employees with opportunities to attend courses in presentation
techniques, negotiating, and effective meetings skills, which led to the publication of
books and materials on business skills.
Therefore, in line with the growing popularity of BE, it is of great significance to
question learners’ difficulties so that to join both the teachers’ potential to the learners’
expectations in an attempt to idealize a BE teaching learning situation.
1.4.2 Difficulties with Learning Business English?
Some research has been considering the difficulties and problems learners face in
the course of their learning of Business English, as well as about the sources of such
constraints and the ensuing detrimental effects on their communicative competence.
Many would agree that difficulties in learning Business English, in a country where
English is taught as a foreign language like Algeria, are to some extent ascribed, partially
or completely, to problems in learning English tout court rather than the English of a
particular specialty (Business English in this case).
In Difficulties for learners- an online article - the writer explains that difficulties
learners encounter while learning English as a foreign language or making use of it for
communicative purposes emanate from the extent to which their native language differs
from English. This implies that such difficulties may be more serious for certain learners,
but may be less for others. For instance, an Algerian learner may face many more
difficulties than a German learner. Generally speaking, this is due to the fact that Arabic is
much more different from English than German in many aspects.
In this Literature Review Chapter, we chose to focus on only one area that is
speaking deficiency performance among learners of Business English which is at the heart
of the present work’s research question.
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1.5 The Speaking Skill in a Language Learning/Teaching context
1.5.1 Introduction
As a starting point, we will present some literature relevant to discuss principles and
aspects of the speaking skill in an EFL and BE contexts but emphasis will be put
particularly on and the BE context. The aim is to gain an overall understanding of what is
meant by “SPEAK”, and how to learn and develop this skill.
Speaking has been neglected in teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) for
many years and remained, for most of its history, a minor occupation. This is in part
because almost all human beings grow up speaking their First Language (L1) and
sometimes their second language (L2), therefore, speaking their foreign language (FL) has
to be learned.
In this respect, to learn how to speak correctly and to be an effective speaker in a
foreign language is one of the most important objectives for both teachers and learners of
foreign languages, especially at university level. Students’ poor performances in speaking
have become the core problem which needs an urgent remedy.
1.5.2 What is Speaking?
Hedge (2000:261) defines speaking as: “A skill by which they (people) are judged
while first impressions are being formed”. In its simplest form, speaking may be defined
as just reproducing
sounds’ combinations which have been already heard or read.
Speaking can be an individual, a personnel, and social endeavor as reported by Miller
(2001)16.
Speaking becomes more complicated when it involves producing meaningful
segments to carry a message in a particular language. Widdowson (2001: 62) defines
speaking as “the production of sentences as instances of usages”.
16
Cited in Richards & Renanya (2003:25).
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Many would agree that speaking can be viewed as a result of complex processes and
the final product is the result of various operations and strategies. Speaking cannot be
achieved if there is no coherence between the words or the sentences which are arranged
and uttered in a particular order and linked together in certain ways that hold a meaning.
As mentioned earlier, speaking is referred to as a language skill. Language skills are
classified into two main categories: the productive skills (speaking and writing) and the
receptive skills (reading and listening). Listening and speaking are naturally acquired,
while reading and writing must be learned at school and university17. Moreover, even if
writing and speaking are belonging to the same category, they are sharply different as
Harmer (2007a: 246) explains: “The productive skills of writing and speaking are different
in many ways”. In what follows a brief discussion on the difference between speaking and
writing.
1.5.3 Differences between Speaking and Writing
There certainly are many differences between speech and writing as two forms of
human communication. Relying on Raimes (1983), we state below a number of these
differences.
 Speech is universal. Everybody can speak, but not everybody can write. For
example, illiterate people can communicate orally, but they cannot do so in
writing. Yet, it is worthy of note, in this context, that not all languages have a
written form.
 Speakers use their voices, intonation, tone, pauses, body movements, and facial
expressions to communicate ideas, whereas writers rely on the scripted words on a
page or screen, and use punctuation marks for the same purpose.
 Speaking can be spontaneous and unplanned. Most writing, however, is planned. It
takes time that is why we can go back to what we have written, and make various
changes if we need to.
17
This is called literacy, i.e., the ability to read and write.
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Speech is usually characterized by informality and redundancy. When we speak to
someone and want them to understand better, we often use expressions like this
means, by this I‟d like to say, etc. Writing, however, is normally marked by
formality and compactness.

A speaker talks to a listener who is present while the speech is taking place, and
who usually makes prompt responses, but a writer addresses a reader who is not
around, and may not be known to him or her, and whose reaction either takes place
at a later time or will not occur at all.
 Speakers often use simple sentences overlinked by and and but, and probably
including er and eh repeated many times. But, writers usually employ long
complex sentences connected with pro-forms, such as who, which, so, there, and
other linkers, such as nevertheless, moreover, etc.
Harris (1993), on his turn, distinguishes between a speaker and a writer as follows:
Speakers
Writers
1. Can refer to people, objects, and so on in
the shared environment by pointing with
gestures or by using pointing words.
2. Can check whether they are being
understood by looking at the speaker's
expression, by asking, or by being directly
prompted.
3. In conversations (including telephone
conversations) speakers are encouraged by
listener's markers, such as "mm" and in live
conversations and gestures.
4. Can backtrack and fill in information
that may have been omitted precise
sequence is not a prerequisite effective
communication.
1. Do not share an immediate environment
with their readers and have to make explicit
references to people and objects.
2. Have no means of knowing once the text
is finished whether the readers will
understand the message they need to
anticipate potential misunderstandings and
appropriate levels of shared knowledge.
3. Have to find ways of motivating
themselves to continue creating a text.
4. Have to plan in order to achieve both a
sequence and a selection that will lead to
effective communication.
Table 1.2: Differences between Speech and Writing (Harris, 1993: 4)
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Finegan (1994:120) had his own ways at looking to the differences between speech
and writing, he suggests that:
“There are four main differences between writing and speaking:
1- Speaking has such channels as intonation, voice pitch, and
gestures to convey information, whereas writing has only words
and syntax.2- Writing requires more time than speaking in
terms of planning.3- Speakers and addresses are often face-toface while writers and readers are not. 4- Speaking tends to
rely on the context of the interaction more than writing.”
Finegan (1994) own vision about the difference between speaking and writing is
developed in terms of their forms and the processes that writers and speakers go through
to produce language. Accordingly, speech forms and processes should be developed in all
instances of oral language production by speakers of L1, L2 and more particularly FL.
All these differences lead us to make an obvious deduction that may be reckoned
as the principal difference between writing and speaking, especially in the field of
language learning: writing either in one‘s mother tongue or in a foreign language is
learned only through formal teaching, whereas spoken language can be acquired outside
the academic realm.
1.5.4 The Speaking Skill in Language Teaching/Learning
In fact, speaking has often been underestimated18 in language teaching, and in
foreign language teaching particularly. In terms of complexity and difficulty, many
surveys proved that language production is difficult. Harmer (2007b, p. 251) points out
that “there are a number of reasons why students find language production difficult”.
The process of learning how to produce an utterance is, in itself, an act of
discovery. Students must master the sound system of language, its grammatical structure,
and select the appropriate vocabulary (mechanisms of speaking) related to the subject
18
The skill of speaking has just been recently considered by many methodologists a priority in language
teaching. Of all the four skills, Ur (1997: 120) concludes, speaking seems intuitively the most important.
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matter. Yet, some learners spend their time memorizing hundreds of words and many
grammar rules, but they still cannot speak properly. Many of them would fail because
speaking is a complex and ever changing process.
Brown (1994) argues that, inside language teaching classrooms, speaking and
listening are the most often used skills. In natural environments, the roles of speakers and
listeners are interchanged; information gaps between them are created and then closed
with the effort from both sides. However, in organized classrooms’ oral practices, teachers
should create as much information gap as possible and teachers’ vital duty is to encourage
communication which yields information gaps. Teachers should also bear in mind the
differences between real-life oral communication and classroom oral communication.
As for Pattison (1987), classroom oral practices have five characteristics: (1) the
content or topic is predictable and decided by teachers, books, tapes, etc; (2) learners’
aims in speaking are to practice speaking, to follow teachers’ instructions and to get good
marks; (3) learners’ extrinsic motivation is satisfied; (4) participants are often a large
group; (5) language from teachers or tapes is closely adapted to learners’ level.
Nunan (1989), on the other hand, suggests a list of relevant characteristics typical
to a well organised real-life oral communication. He suggests: (1) comprehensible
pronunciation of the target language; (2) good use of stress, rhythm, intonation patterns;
(3) fluency; (4) good transactional and interpersonal skills; (5) skills in taking short and
long speaking in turns; (6) skills in the management of interactions; (7) skills in
negotiating meaning; (8) conversational listening skills; (9) skills in knowing about and
negotiating purposes for the conversation; (10) using appropriate conversational
formulae and filters.
Most language learners are primarily interested in learning to speak. Nunan (1989)
asserts that the ability to operate in a second language can be actually equated to the
ability to speak that language. Hedge (2000: 261) chooses to formulate the reasons for
learning to speak as follows:
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“Learners may need the skill to establish and maintain
relationships, to negotiate, to influence people. Speaking is the
skill by which learners are assessed when the first impression is
formed”
As it was stated in the last section, speaking has often been underestimated. Less
importance is presumably seen in research on the speaking skill because of the position
ascribed to this skill in different teaching approaches. We can significantly notice that
there is a striking contrast between the recent views on speaking and the ancient views
held mainly by advocates of the grammar-translation or the audio-lingual method. Mackey
(2002: 5) argues:
“Oral expression involves not only [….] the use of the right
sounds in the right patterns of rhythm and intonation, but also
the choice of words and inflections in the right order to convey
the right meaning”
In the ancient approaches- as illustrated by Mackey’s words- the skill of speaking
was rarely emphasized in connection to its purpose, i.e. the ability to use a language in
real-life situations. Rather, emphasis is put on the formal part, i.e. the correct sounds, the
correct choice of words and inflections etc., led to the accuracy oriented practice. Types of
activities such as oral drills, model dialogue practice and pattern practice (“The Audiolingual method”) were widely used in teaching speaking. The result was that, although
learners knew the patterns and memorized the rules, they were not able to use their
knowledge in practice. They were not capable of exploiting the rules and patterns in real
interaction.
1.5.5 The Speaking Skill in an EFL Teaching/ Learning Context
Nunan (1999: 71) considers that:
“Language is arguably the defining characteristic of the human
species and knowledge of language in general, as well as ability
to use one’s first and, at least one other language, should be one
of the defining characteristics of the educated individual”
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It is not surprising to say that the ability to speak at least one foreign language is a
necessity especially in a globalised world. Communication among people has expanded
way beyond their local speech communities (Ellis, 1997).
Today, learning how to speak the Lingua Franca has become a means of keeping up
with the pace of the rapidly changing world. Nowadays, Speaking English forms a
permanent part of all types of curriculum-from primary schools to universities- and
employment instances’ conditions for recruitment19 including companies and multinational
organisations where a person, in most cases, can hardly integrate these communities of
practice without this ability. The demands of the contemporary society together with the
position of English as an international language may present a reason for learning this
language in particular. Objectively, the increasing demand for learning a foreign language,
especially English in non-English speaking countries is an evident tendency in the global
integration
along
with
non-English
speaking
countries’
policy
of
innovation,
industrialization and modernization.
However, most English language teachers and learners cannot deny that to learn
speaking English has nothing to do with learning writing, reading or listening. It involves,
not only, learning how to produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns, how to
use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the language, how to
select appropriate utterances according to the proper social setting, audience and subject
matter, how to organize ideas in a meaningful and logical sequence, how to use language
as a means of expressing values and judgments, and how to use it quickly and confidently
with few unnatural pauses to achieve fluency, but also to be able use social and pragmatic
rules to perform appropriate structures of the English language20.
19
Oral communication skills are central for undergraduate Business students if they are not to be
disadvantaged in the workplace (Crossling & Ward, 2002).
20 Bygate, (1987:5) argues : “Speaking involves two types of skills – basic, lower level motor-perceptive
skills of producing right sounds and using accurate grammatical structures, and communicative strategies
such as what and how to get the meaning across” .
See Lazarton (2001) and Martinez-Flor, Uso-Juan & Alcon-Soler (2006).
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1.5.6 Difficulties with Teaching/Learning Speaking BE
Students of Business English as well as EFL learners need to develop the following
skills:
“Producing connected speech, the ability to interact, talking
round gaps in their knowledge, speaking in a range of contexts,
and balancing accuracy and fluency“
(Knight and Lindsay, 2006: 60).
Like any other students interested in speaking English properly, Learners of
Business English need to learn how to engage in conversations with other speakers,
respond appropriately and use vocabulary and phrases of everyday/Business English for
situations. They should know, for example, how to greet properly, what language to use in
job interviews, what phrases are needed to answer phone calls and requests in a job
dinner. According to Knight & Lindsay (2006), speakers of BE needs to cover a wide
range of general21 and specific contexts22 : They need to practice with strangers, at work,
in a restaurant, in a grocery…etc.
It seems that for a non-native speaker who desire to learn speaking English
(whether Business English or English as a Foreign Language) and knows that in his/her
environment English is not practiced the task is problematic in the sense that many
BE/EFL learners transfer their speaking abilities and strategies, whether good or deficient,
from their L1 to their FL. Yet, just as the rules for driving differ from one country to
another, the conventions for speaking may change from one language to another23.
In any ways, not everyone is a naturally gifted speaker. Speaking is a skill that can
be learned, practiced, and mastered. The nature of speaking, in a foreign speaking
environment, can be linked to the nature of speakers themselves such as students or
people in general.
21
Here we refer to General and every day English.
Here we refer to Business English.
23 Harmer (2001:246) states: “Speaking is a productive skill aiming at communication. For communication
in a foreign language to be successful, a speaker needs to be familiar with linguistic and cultural
backgrounds that are shared by native speakers and has to obey certain rules and conventions that are not
written down anywhere, nor are easy to define”.
22
21
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Because research on BE teaching/learning speaking problems is limited, we choose
to focus our attention on EFL teaching/learning speaking problems to approximate some
truth about the research in question.
1.5.6.1 Learners-Centered Difficulties
There exist many student-related problems in teaching the speaking skill in EFL
classes. Many studies into speaking EFL report on frequent cases of Reticence24 and
anxiety in EFL learning. Learners demonstrate unwillingness to speak and unpreparation
to get into the process. It has been found that many EFL learners’ especially non-native
learners of the target language, are passive in oral language classrooms and choose not to
use the target language especially when responding to teachers25 . Their reluctance and
reticence in English oral classes challenge any teacher and any teaching situation.
In fact, reticence research in foreign language learning has captured the attention of
language theorists and many educators in the last years (Burns & Joyce, 1997; MacIntyre
& Charos, 1996; MacIntyre et al., 2001; Tsui, 1996).
Burns & Joyce (1997) questioned reasons for EFL learners’ reticence. They
enumerated three groups of variables that encompass the following:
24
Horwitz et al., (1986); MacIntyre & Gadner, (1989); Burns & Joyce, (1997); MacIntyre & Charos,
(1996); MacIntyre et al., (2001) and Tsui, (1996) assume that reticence is when people speak in a second or
foreign language, they become more apprehensive and tense and thus more unwilling to participate in
conversation.
25 See Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Jackson, 1999, 2001, 2002; Li, 1998; Sato, 1990; Tsui, 1996; Zou, 2004.
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LINGUISTIC
FACTORS
CULTURAL
FACTORS
AFFECTIVE
FACTORS
RETICENCE
Figure 1.4: Reasons for EFL Learners’ Reticence
Burns & Joyce (1997)
 Cultural Factors: Burns & Joyce (1997) explain that cultural factors follow from
students’ prior learning experiences and consequently from the expectations that
are formed on their basis.
 Linguistic Factors: Burns & Joyce (1997) consider that linguistic factors refer to
low English proficiency. Limiting speaking for EFL learners could be difficulties
in the phonetics and phonology of the target language, poor knowledge of
grammatical patterns or low awareness of cultural background and social
conventions that are necessary for processing meaning in the target language.
 Affective Factors: Burns & Joyce (1997) refer to personal traits (i.e., reservedness,
shyness, introvertedness), low motivation level, individual differences (i.e., selfesteem and/or self-perception) timidity or anxiety in class, negative social
experiences, and culture shock as affective factors.
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Ur (1997) has also shown interest in speaking problems among learners of EFL.
She was preoccupied with difficulties she has encountered in getting her learners to speak
in the class. Her variables correspond to the following:
Mother Tongue
No Ideas to
Share
Inhibition
Problems of
Participation
Figure 1.5: Variables for EFL Learners’ Reticence
Ur (1997)
All these findings about reticence and many others26 reveal that reticence is a
widely-observed phenomenon in EFL classrooms and that various factors contribute to
student reluctance. In fact, problems in the speaking classroom should be viewed from
different angles. It is high time to consider research on teachers and context-centered
variables that participate to bad achievement among EFL learners of the speaking skill.
1.5.6.2 Teachers-Centered Difficulties
Any learning context is bound tightly to the teaching one27. The teaching plans and
objectives of any EFL Oral classroom are successfully achieved if the teacher demonstrates
appropriate pedagogical practices.
To implement the various teaching plans and to attain the different teaching goals
appropriately, researchers discussed to what extent the relationship between teacher talk
and EFL Oral language learning environment affect students ‘oral performance.
26
27
See MacIntyre & Charos, (1996); MacIntyre et al., (2001) and Tsui, (1996).
There is no learning without teaching.
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Teacher
Talk
Amount
&
Time
of
Talk
Evaluation
&
Correction
Teacher
-Learner
relationship
Figure 1.6: Teachers-Centered Difficulties
(Brown, 2002; Harmer, 2000; Ur, 2000; Cook, 2000; Zhao Xiaohong, 1998;
Tsui, 1996; Nunan, 1991; Hakansson, 1986)
Nunan (1991: 07) points out:
“Teacher talk is of crucial importance, not only for the
organization of the classroom but also for the processes of
acquisition. It is important for the organization and
management of the classroom because it is through language that
teachers either succeed or fail in implementing their teaching
plans. In terms of acquisition, teacher talk is important because
it is probably the major source of comprehensible target
language input the learner is likely to receive”.
Hakansson (1986), on the same line of thought, joins Nunan’s vision relating the
teacher talk to success at both organisation and acquisition levels. Additionally, He
regards the amount and type of teacher talk as a predominant factor of success or failure in
an EFL oral teaching learning situation.
This can be better understood in an EFL oral classroom situation where both teachers
and learners participate actively in language classes activities. The teachers’ mission is, not
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only, to provide enough English language input but also to offer opportunities for learners to
practice the target language. So the management of teacher talk time is an important issue to
be questioned: whether or not the amount of teacher talk influences learners’ foreign language
learning28. Cook (2000) and Zhao Xiaohong (1998), for example, stipulate that teachers tend to
do most of the classroom talk. Teacher talk makes up over 70 percent of the total talk. Harmer
(2000) points out that the best lessons are ones where student talk is maximized i.e. where
students are given multiple opportunities to use the language they are learning.
Getting students to talk is a challenging task for any teacher. A big amount of student
talk induces, on the part of the student, the production of many mistakes. Inevitably, students
would make a lot of mistakes in the process of learning and speaking a foreign language.
Brown (2002: 205) argues:
“A learner’s errors... are significant in (that) they provide to the
researcher evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what
strategies or procedures the learner is employing in the discovery
of the language”
In brown’s words, mistakes are good means a teacher can use to identify What, How
and When to correct students. Evaluation and correction helps students to better their
understanding and performance. Yet, it is very crucial to consider how teachers correct and
evaluate students’ oral performance. Ur (2000) points out the relevance of questioning
how teacher correction is expressed: gently or assertively supportively or as a
condemnation, tactfully or rudely.
One of the striking teacher-centred difficulties experienced in an oral EFL
environment would be the relationship between the teacher and the learner. A principal
prerequisite variable for creating and maintaining a motivating learning atmosphere in
class is to setting a good relationship between the teacher and the learner.
Tsui (1996), Horwitz et al. (1991), Koch & Terrell (1991), Horwitz (1988),
investigated anxieties related to teacher-learner interactions and relationships. Most of
them, proposed some possible ways for an enjoyable oral learning environment, they
28
A great number of researchers have testified this: Legarreta, 1977; Hakansson, 1986; Chaudron, 1988; Nunan,
1991; Zhao Xiaohong, 1998; Harmer, 2000; Cook, 2000.
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talked about possibilities for: (a) talking with students about their feelings and helping
them rationalize their anxiety about speaking; (b) talking to students outside the classroom
because some students may feel inhibited about discussing their feelings in front of their
classmates.
What has been advanced in the last section describes teacher-centered difficulties
which can be considered in an oral classroom. Yet, research on this question is not
exhausted; on the contrary, it needs to be developed further.
1.6 Chapter Summary
The purpose of this chapter is to give a theoretical background to this study. We
have tried to survey and review some major existing studies which are relevant to the
various themes of this work’s research questions. In sum, we can say that the factors
behind students’ poor performances are endless, but we have limited ourselves to the
major ones.
In the next Chapter (Chapter Two), we will provide an account of the research
questions, the motivation and also the significance of the research. This is done to help the
reader follow the different steps of the research with ease and be able to relate to the
rationale that lies behind each step. We will also outline methods of data collection and
analysis destined to best investigate key issues of the research questions.
27