MODULE FIVE
INVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING
Learning Objectives:
By the time you have completed this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain the construct of intelligence from Sternberg’s and Gardner’s
view.
2. Discuss the relationship of intelligence and aptitude to learning and
academic performance.
3. Differentiate intrinsic from extrinsic motivation and give examples of
each.
4. View motivation from the different theoretical perspectives
5. Set motivating goals for yourself and your students.
6. List some characteristics of a self-regulated learner and describe how
teachers can promote self-regulated learning in the classroom.
7. Describe different ways of looking at learning styles and explain how
they influence learning.
8. Differentiate the types of exceptionality in terms of cognitive and noncognitive functioning.
9. Explain how a teacher may improve learning by considering the principle
of individual differences.
Introduction
The principle of individual differences emphasize that there are
variations among individuals and that no two persons are exactly alike. As
applied in the teaching-learning process, the teacher must recognize that
learners differ not only across sex, age, economic status and the like, but
also in their physical, intellective and non-intellective functioning.
Individual differences exist in terms of intellectual ability, motivation, and
learning style, For one student, self-regulated learning may work best while
for another, it may result to failure. There are also individuals who may be
gifted and would profit well from teaching while there are those with special
needs and experience learning difficulties.
If education is geared towards the well-rounded development of a
person, then the teacher need to consider individual differences and accord
every student the learning and services suited to their special needs.
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Lesson 15
Intelligence
Students differ in terms of the individual characteristics and traits that they bring
into the learning situation. Such individual differences may be classified into
physiological, intellective or non-intellective domains. Under the intellective domains,
intelligence and aptitude are two important factors where learner differences may be
pronounced and would definitely affect learning.
With the contributions of cognitive psychologists, there is no doubt that learning
is an active mental process. Thus, educational psychologists are interested in how people
think, learn concepts, make decisions, and solve problems. A major factor that mediates
these cognitive processes is one’s intelligence which is often referred to as the general
capacity to learn and adjust to the environment.
The Nature of Intelligence
Some psychologists like James McKeen Cattell were influenced by Darwin to
view intelligence as a genetic factor, separate from special abilities. On the other hand,
Charles Spearman maintains that intelligence consists of two factors, the g or general
intelligence factor and the s or specific factors.
David Wechsler (1939, 1974), the author of the Wechsler intelligence scales for
adults, children and preschoolers defines intelligence as the global capacity of a person to
think rationally, act purposefully and deal effectively with his environment (Drummond,
1996).
To better understand the nature of intelligence, let us look at some of its elements and
characteristics as described by several theorists.

Intelligence is adaptive. It involves modifying and adjusting one’s behavior in
order to accomplish new tasks successfully

Intelligence is culture-specific. What is “intelligent” behavior in one culture is not
necessarily intelligent behavior in another culture

Intelligence is related to learning ability. Intelligent people learn information
more quickly and easily than less intelligent people

Intelligence involves the use of prior knowledge to analyze and understand new
situations effectively

Intelligent thinking involves the complex interaction and coordination of many
different mental processes
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
Intelligence maybe seen in different arenas-for example on academic tasks or in
social situations.

Intelligence is not necessarily a permanent, unchanging characteristic. It can be
modified through experience and learning.

Intelligence is somewhat distinct from a person’s innate potential for learning
(aptitude) and what an individual has actually learned (achievement).
Theories Of Intelligence
There are several models used in explaining intelligence. Two of these which are relevant
to teaching are Sternberg’s Triarchic Intelligence and Howard Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligence.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence
Robert Sternberg (1986) believes that intellectual skills and thinking skills are
inseparable. In Sternberg’s words, intelligence is the purposive selection and shaping of
and adaptation to real-world environments relevant to one’s life. This definition
emphasizes the individual’s control over the environment by changing and molding them.
.
Successful intelligence, Sternberg explains, requires three types of abilities:
analytical, creative, and practical. Analytical abilities are needed in sorting out and
evaluating options, monitoring failure and success, and setting up strategies. It involves
judging, evaluating, contrasting, comparing, and analyzing.
Creative abilities allow the individual to generate options and ideas and to try
new ways of selecting, shaping and adapting to the environment. They are evident in
activities such as discovering, imagining, inventing and supposing. Practical abilities
allow people to carry out their options, to put into practice the behaviors and skills that
are involved in selecting, shaping, and adapting to environments.
Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner’s theory made a paradigm shift in understanding intelligence and
had a great impact in the development of new curriculum and approaches in education.
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences in based on his assumption that the brain has
evolved separate systems for different adaptive abilities, talents or cognitive skills that he
calls “intelligences”. He further assumes that the brain pathways underlying these
intelligences are developed to different degrees in every person (Gines, et.al. 1998)
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The eight intelligences according to Gardner are:
1. Linguistic intelligence – the ability to communicate well in language, orally or in
writing, or both.
2. Interpersonal intelligence – the ability to function well in social situations; to
sense other’s feelings and be in tune with others.
3. Intrapersonal intelligence – self awareness, the ability to know one’s self well; to
understand one’s feelings, motives, body and mind.
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence – the ability to use one’s physical body well, to
move effectively and manipulate objects effectively.
5. Logical-mathematical intelligence – the ability to learn higher mathematics, to
analyze and solve mathematical problems and to handle complex logical
arguments.
6. Musical-Rhythmic intelligence – the ability to learn, perform, and compose
music.
7. Visual-Spatial intelligence – the ability to perceive and arrange objects in the
environment; know where you are relative to fixed locations. The ability to
accomplish tasks requiring 3-dimensional visualization.
8. Naturalistic intelligence – the ability to adapt to nature; to understand different
species, recognize patterns in nature, and classify natural objects.
Gardner’s theory viewed intelligence from different perspectives and showed a
high respect for the individual’s learning potential. It recognizes that every person is
gifted with a particular intelligence which he can nourish and utilize. With this theory,
the different abilities and talents of students can be discovered and harnessed so that they
become more actively involved in learning.
INTELLIGENCE, APTITUDE, AND SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT
Psychologists engaged in measurement and testing classify abilities into
intelligence, aptitude and achievement. The potentials for learning can be measured in
terms of intelligence tests and aptitude tests. On the other hand, the outcomes of
instruction or student’s progress as a result of learning or training are measured by
achievement tests.
While intelligence tests are designed to measure general capacity to solve
problems, adapt to changing circumstances, think abstractly and profit from experience ;
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aptitude tests measure potential for learning or acquiring a new skill and predict future
performance. Because aptitude tests predict future performance, they are recognized as
better predictors of academic success. However, studies show that intelligence can also
predict school performance as IQ scores are correlated with achievement tests.
In recognizing the relationship between intelligence tests scores and school
achievement, we must also keep two points in mind about this relationship: the first is
that intelligence does not necessarily cause achievement, and the second important point
is that the relationship between IQ scores and achievement is not a perfect one.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Read more about intelligence, aptitude, and achievement tests. Which among
these measures is the best predictor of academic success? Explain by citing
examples, facts and personal experiences.
2. Compare Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory with Howard Gardner in terms of
their reasonableness, practical utility and social responsibility. Which theory
could better explain the construct of intelligence?
3. Discuss the implications of Gardner’s theory in teaching in the preschools.
REFERENCES
1. Aiken, L. (2000) Psychological Testing and Assessment 10th edition U.S.A: Allyn
and Bacon.
2. Drummond, R.
3. Gines, A. et. al. (2002) Educational Psychology. Manila: Rex Book Store.
4. Wechsler, D. (1974) Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- Revised,
New York: Psychological Corporation.
5. Whiston, S. C. (2000) Principles and Applications of Assessment in Counseling
California: Cole Thomson Learning.
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Lesson 16
Motivation
Why are you reading this module? Is it because you are curious and interested
about the topic of motivation? Or maybe as a teacher you are having difficulty in
motivating your students. Do you need to study this module as a class requirement or is
there a test in the near future? Or perhaps you want to do well in the subject because you
expect to earn a good grade. We could think of several other reasons, and for some it may
be a combination of reasons to explain what motivates one to study motivation.
Defining Motivation
Motivation is a very important construct in learning because it is considered as
the intervening variable involved in arousing, directing, and sustaining behavior. Creder
et. al. (1996) refers to motivation as the desires, needs, and interests that arouse and
activate an organism and direct it toward a goal. Similarly, Bernstein et. al (1991) sees
motivation as the influence that govern the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence
of behavior.
According to Ball (1977), motivation is a hypothetical construct, It cannot be
observed directly, but is only inferred from a person’s observable behavior. He added that
motivation is not the only factor that determines behavior. For example, poor academic
performance could stem from an interplay of motivation with low mental capacity,
learning disability, and absence of support.
In addition, we should consider that:
a)
b)
c)
d)
motivation is selective and directional
motivation involves goal-seeking, the learner persists to a reach a perceived goal
the same motive may be expressed in more than one behavior.
the same behavior may express different motivation.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
What energizes or directs our behavior? Some explanations of motivation focus
on internal, personal factors such as needs, interests, curiosity, and enjoyment. Other
explanations point to external, environmental factors such as rewards, social pressure and
punishment. The former involves intrinsic motivation while the latter is referred to as
extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation is the natural tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as
we pursue personal interests and exercise capabilities (Deci and Ryan, 1985). According
to Woolfolk (1998), one who is intrinsically motivated do not need incentives or
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punishments, because the activity itself is rewarding. In contrast, when we do something
for the purpose of getting a reward or grade, avoiding punishment, or pleasing the teacher
or a parent, we are driven by extrinsic motivators.
The essential difference between the two is the student’s reason for acting., that is
whether the locus of causality is internal or external. Students may freely choose the
activity based on personal interests (internal locus of causality/intrinsic motivation) or
because someone or something else outside is influencing them (external locus of
causality/extrinsic motivation).
Approaches to Motivation
Woolfolk (1998) outlined four general approaches to motivation. These include
the behavioral, humanistic, cognitive and social learning theories.
1. Behavioral Approaches
Behaviorists look at extrinsic reinforcement as a source of motivation They study
motivation with a careful analysis of the incentives and rewards present in the
classroom. If a person is consistently reinforced for certain behaviors, he may
develop habits or tendencies to act in certain ways.
2. Humanistic Approaches
Humanistic explanations of motivation emphasize intrinsic sources such as a
person’s need for “self-actualization” (Maslow, 1968), the inborn “actualizing
tendency” (Rogers & Freiberg, 1970; 1994), or the need for “self-determination”
(Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, & Ryan, 1991). From the humanistic perspective, to
motivate students means to encourage the development of their inner resources –
their sense of competence, self-esteem, autonomy, and self-actualization.
3. Cognitive Approaches
Cognitive theorists believe that behavior is initiated and regulated by plans, goals,
schemas, expectations, and attributions (Woolfolk, 1998). Thus, people are
intrinsically motivated. They work hard because they want to understand and they
like what they are doing.
4. Social Learning Approaches
Social learning theories usually combine behavioral and cognitive approaches.
They take into account the individual’s expectations of reaching a goal, and the
value of that goal or the outcome. The important questions asked are, “If I try
hard, can I succeed?, and “If I succeed, will the outcome be valuable or rewarding
to me?
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Goals and Motivation
Goals increase motivation if they are specific, moderately difficult, and attainable
in the near future. The distinction between performance goals (the intention to appear
smart or capable in the eyes of others) and learning goals (the intention to gain
knowledge and master skills) is important. Students who are motivated to learn set
learning rather than performance goals and are task-involved rather than ego-involved.
(Woolfolk, 1998). For goal-setting to be effective, the goals must be acceptable to the
students and they need accurate feedback about their progress toward goals.
Sources of Motivation for Learning
According to Gagne and Driscoll (1988), the most fundamental motivation for a
learner is the desire to enter into a learning situation. As far as instruction is concerned,
the sources of motivation could be in knowledge structures that affect the pursuit of
learning. These include curiosity, achievement, and self-efficacy.
 Curiosity
A person’s curiosity is usually aroused by stimuli that are novel, complex and
incongruous (Berlyne, 1965). When instruction can be designed so as to make use
of unusual or novel patterns of stimulation, curiosity can serve as a form of
motivation.
 Achievement
A strong source of motivation is the individual’s desire to achieve, to produce
something, or to gain control over something by action. As applicable to
motivation for learning, the desire for achievement or competence obviously
refers to people’s own views of what they can accomplish through their own
performances. (Gagne and Driscoll, 1988).
 Self-efficacy
Student’s belief about their own ability to succeed influence their achievement.
Self-efficacy (Bandura (1986,1995) refers to beliefs about personal competence in
a particular situation (Woolfolk, 1998). Sense of self-efficacy not only affects
expectations for success or failure, it also influences motivation through goal
setting.
Motivation in the Classroom
Motivating students to learn is one of the critical tasks of teaching. Teachers need
to develop a particular kind of motivation in their students – the motivation to learn.
Jere Brophy (in Woolfolk, 1998) describes student motivation to learn as the tendency to
find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and try to derive the intended
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academic benefits from them. Motivation to learn can then be construed as both a general
trait and a situation specific state.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. List 5 examples each of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation strategies that you use
or a teacher need to use in teaching. Explain how each can work effectively to
motivate students.
2. Maslow’s theory has been criticized because people do not always appear to
behave as the theory would predict. Most of us move back and forth among
different types of needs at the same time. Some people deny themselves safety or
friendship in order to achieve knowledge, understanding, or greater self-esteem.
Criticisms aside, Maslow’s theory gives us a new way of looking at the whole
person whose physical , emotional and intellectual needs are all interrelated.
Discuss the implications of Maslow’s theory to education focusing on students’
needs and motivation. Cite concrete examples of student behavior on each level of
the need hierarchy.
3. How can students need for achievement and self-actualization be supported
through goal setting?
REFERENCES:
1. Ball, S. (1977) Motivation in Education. New York: Academic Press
2. Deci,
& Ryan,
(1985)
3. Domjan, M. (1993) The Principles of Learning and Behavior 3rd ed., California:
Brooks/Cole Publishing.
4. Gagne, Robert M and M. P. Driscoll (1988) Essentials of Learning for Instruction
2nd edition. New Jersey. Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs.
5. Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York: McGraw Hill,
New York.
6. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
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LESSON 17
SELF-REGULATED LEARNING
It is often said that learning is a life-long process, that one never ceases to learn as
long as he or she lives. One major goal of teaching is to free students from the need of
teachers so that they can continue to learn independently throughout their lives. This can
be achieved when the teacher has taught his or her students how to become self-regulated
learners.
Defining Self-Regulated Learning
Self-regulation refers to self-generated thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are
oriented to attaining goals (Zimmerman, 2000). Self-regulated learners are proactive in
their efforts to learn because they are aware of their strengths and limitations and because
they are guided by personally set goals and task-related strategies. They monitor their
behavior in terms of their goals and self-reflect on their increasing effectiveness.
Because of their superior motivation and adaptive learning methods, selfregulated students are more likely to succeed academically and are optimistic about their
future.
Cleary and Zimmerman (2000) emphasize that self-regulated learning involves
more than detailed knowledge of a skill; it involves the self-awareness, self-motivation,
and behavioral skill to implement that knowledge appropriately.
Characteristics of Self-Regulated Learners
Self-regulated learners have a combination of academic learning skills and self-control
that makes learning easier. Three factors that influence their skill and will are:
knowledge, motivation, and self-discipline or volition. (Woolfolk, 1998)
 Knowledge
Self-regulated learners need knowledge about themselves, the subject, the task,
strategies for learning and the context in which they will apply their learning.
They know their learning styles, their interests and talents, their strengths and
limitations and how to use their strengths.
 Motivation
Self-regulated learners are motivated to learn. They are interested to learn because
they know why they are studying and they value learning. They are selfdetermined and not controlled by others.
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 Volition
Self-regulated learners have the willpower to continue what they are doing despite
the odds and temptations. They know how to protect themselves from distraction,
how to cope when they feel anxious and lazy, and what to do when they are
tempted to stop working.
Structure and Function Of Self-Regulatory Processes
According to Zimmerman (2002), the structure of self-regulatory processes can be
viewed in terms of three cyclical phases. The forethought phase refers to processes and
beliefs that occur before efforts to learn; the performance phase refers to processes that
occur during behavioral implementation, and self-reflection refers to processes that occur
after each learning effort. The processes and functions involved are summarized below
(Zimmerman, 2002).
1. Forethought Phase
Task Analysis (Goal setting, strategic planning)
Self Motivation (Self-efficacy, Outcome expectations, Instrinsic
Interest/value, Learning goal orientation)
2. Performance Phase
Self-Control (Imagery, self-instruction, attention focusing,
Task strategies)
Self-Observation (Self-recording, self-experimentation)
3. Self-reflection phase
Self-Judgment (Self-evaluation, Causal attribution)
Self-reaction (Self-satisfaction/affect, Adaptive/defensive)
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Read more on the topic “self-regulated learning”. List some characteristics of
a self-regulated learner. Do you consider yourself as one? Explain why you
think so and cite specific activities that you do that characterizes a selfregulated learner.
2. How can a teacher promote self-regulated learning in the classroom? Cite
specific procedures or techniques and explain how they can be employed.
Critical Thinking
3. Why is it that not all students may be capable of becoming self-regulated
learners?
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REFERENCES
1. Garcia, John Addy S. (2005) Lecture-Presentation “Self-Regulated Learning”.
Psychology Department. Central Luzon State University.
2. Zimmerman, Barry J. (2002) Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview.
Theory Into Practice Vol. 42, 2, Spring 2002, College of Education, The Ohio
State University.
3. Zimmerman, Barry J. (2000) Attainment of self-regulation: A social cognitive
perspective. In M. Boekarts, P.R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds) Handbook of SelfRegulation. San Diego, C.A: Academic Presss.
4. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
Lesson 17
Learning Styles
Try to ask your students how they study for an examination and which method
would usually bring about the best results. Perhaps one would say that when doing an
assignment or reviewing for an exam, he/she prefers to do it alone and in a quite place.
Another student might say that he /she prefers learning with peers he/she could learn
better study when there is background music. These two students definitely differ in the
ways or manner in which they learn best, that is, their learning styles.
Defining Learning Styles
Learning styles refer to the characteristic cognitive, affective, and psychological
behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with,
and respond to the learning environment (Keefe & Monk, 1986). For Dunn and Dunn
(1993), learning style is the way in which each learner begins to concentrate, process, and
retain new and difficult information. No learning style is either good or bad. Each merely
provides inside into how a person is most likely to learn new and difficult information.
Thus if you are a teacher and you want to facilitate learning or accelerate the
learning process, you need to have a clear understanding of how your students learn best,
their styles or ways of learning. Learning will be maximized if students are taught using
their perceptual strengths.
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Characteristics of Learning Style
1. Learning style is more than learning most easily by hearing, seeing, reading,
writing, illustrating or experiencing actively. Perceptual strength or modality is
only one factor.
2. It is also more than whether a person processes information sequentially,
analytically, or in a “left-brain” mode rather that in a holistic, simultaneous global
“right brain” fashion.
3. It is more than how someone responds to the environment or whether information
is absorbed concretely or abstractly.
4. Learning Style is the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process,
and retain new and difficult information. That process occurs differently for
everyone.
Some facts about learning styles which are worth considering are:




Every person has a learning style and every person has learning style strengths.
People tend to learn more when taught with their own strengths than when taught
with the teacher’s strengths
No learning style is better or worse than another. Each style encompasses similar
intelligence ranges
Most gifted children are global learners. On the other hand, most underachievers
also are globals.
But whether students are analytical or global, they are capable of mastering
identical information or skills if they are taught through instructional methods, or
resources that complement their styles
Some Learning Styles
Several typologies of learners are described in the different models of learning
styles formulated by some psychologists and educators. Among the many learning style
models, the work of Dunn and Dunn and David Kolb were presented in this module.
1. Analytical vs. Global Learners (Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model)
Dr. Rita Dunn and K. Dunn (1975) classified students as globals and analyticals
based on their learning preferences. The Dunn, Dunn and Price Learning Style Inventory
is the most widely used and most researched diagnostic instrument for school aged
children in the United States. The instrument encompasses 21 different variables,
including each person’s environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological and
cognitive- processing preferences.
The characteristics and attributes of analytical as well as global learners are
summarized in the table below. (Source:Manual on the Second National Conference of
the Center for Learning and Teaching Styles, Philippines)
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Table 6.
ELEMENTS
Characteristic of Analytical vs. Global Learners
ANALYTICAL
- Prefers quiet place
- Prefers bright lights
- Prefers a formal setting
GLOBAL
Prefers sounds
Prefers low lights
Prefers an informal setting
- Is persistent
- Have strong emotional need
to complete the tasks they are
working on
- Prefers routines and set
patterns in terms of tasks
Is not persistent
Prefers to work on several tasks
simultaneously
Prefers to structure tasks in
their own way; tends to dislike
imposed directions.
- Does not prefer intake while
learning. They rarely eat,
PHYSIOLOGICAL
drink, smoke, chew or bite on
objects while learning
Prefers intake while learning
Take frequent breaks while
studying
Lots of mobility
ENVIRONMENTAL
EMOTIONAL
SOCIOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL
- Often likes learning alone or Often likes learning with peers
with authority figure (teacher,
parent, tutor)
-Left-brainthinkers (deductive
works on the big picture)
- Process new information in
linear, logical or sequential
manner
- Learn more easily when
information is presented stepby-step in a cumulative
sequential pattern that builds
toward
conceptual
understanding
Right-brain thinkers (inductive;
attends to the details)
Spatial,
conceptual
or
simultaneous
Learn more easily when they
understand the concept first,
and then can concentrate on
details, or when they are
introduced to the information
with preferably, a humorous
story replete with examples and
graphics.
2. Learning Style Inventory (LSI)- Dr. David Kolb (1976)
The conceptual framework of this style is the experiential learning model. The
core of this model is a simple description of the learning cycle of how adult experience is
translated into concepts, which in turn are used as guides in the choices of new
experiences. The Kolb Learning Style Inventory is a 9-item assessment instrument with
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4-sub-items to be ranked ordered by adults. It is designed for and applied to adult
organizational systems and management training.
Types of Learners According to the Kolb Model
1. Converger
use abstract conceptualization and active experimentation
Strength: practical application of ideas
2. Diverger
opposite of converger; use
observation
Strength: imaginative ability
3. Assimilator
use abstract conceptualization and reflective observation
Strength: ability to create theoretical models
4. Accommodator
use concrete experience and active experimentation
Strength: actually doing things, carrying out plans and
experiments, involving themselves in new experiences
concrete experience and reflective
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Application of D. Kolb’s Model. Assume that you are a teacher and you found out
that half of your class are of the converger type while the other half are of the
diverger type of learner. How would you design your teaching so that the learning of
all your students is facilitated and maximized.
2. Read more about the different models of learning styles. Suppose you are assigned to
do a study on learning styles of third year high school students in one private and one
government school. Which model of learning style will you use? What other variables
will you include in your study?
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of matching your teaching style with your
students’ learning styles.
REFERENCES
1. Center for Learning and Teaching Styles (2001) Manual for the Second National
Conference March 1-2, 2001 Creating an Enhanced Learning Environment
Through Individual Learning Styles. PICC, Pasay City.
2. Gines, A. et. al. (2002) Educational Psychology. Manila: Rex Book Store.
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Lesson 18
The Exceptional Learner
The study of exceptionality has been a major concern of contemporary education.
Exceptional learners have special needs and may require a form of schooling that
deviates in some significant fashion from what is thought to be appropriate, if not
adequate, for the majority. Without a modified instruction to suit their needs, they are
likely to spend their school years with a limited chance of success and a great risk of
failure.
The Nature Of Exceptionalities
We know that every person is different, unique and special and, therefore, there
could be something exceptional about each and every one of us.
To broadly define exceptionality in the context of educational characteristics, we
refer to “any person whose cognitive, physical, or emotional characteristics deviate or
depart substantially from what is considered normal and who requires special services to
meet his or her instructional needs.” (Gines, et. al. ,1998) Other terms used to indicate
classes of exceptional learners include disabled, handicapped, abnormal, special, and
gifted. As Hallahan (1998) emphasized exceptional children require special education
and related services if they are to realize their full human potential.
Types Of Exceptionalities
Exceptionalities are not limited to cognitive as well as physical factors. There are
both cognitive and non-cognitive dimensions to human exceptionalities, just as there are
to normal differences.
I. Cognitive Disabilities
Some of the significant differences between individuals pertain primarily to their
cognitive or intellectual functioning. Under this category are mental retardation and
learning disabilities.
 Mental Retardation
The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) define mental
retardation, as “significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning existing
concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior, and manifested during the developmental
period”. (Gines et. al., 1998). This definition implies that mentally retarded individuals
lack the development of adaptive self help skills and are incapable of independent
behavior. The intellectual deficits are evident between birth and 18 years of age.
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The mentally retarded now called mentally challenged individuals are classified
in terms of the severity of their cognitive impairment, as follows:
1. Mild mental retardation. With IQs falling somewhere between 50-75 the mildly
retarded are considered “educable” and could acquire basic academic skills that
may reach the level of a sixth or seventh grader. Given appropriate training and
instruction, they can function adequately in our society by acquiring the needed
self-help, adaptive skills that will allow them to perform menial jobs and be
contributing members of our society.
2. Moderate mental retardation. They are considered “trainable” and has an IQ
within 40-50 range. Though they are not expected to acquire basic academic
skills, with long term, appropriate training they are able to acquire some minimal
social and occupational skills.
3. Severe and Profound retardation. With an IQ estimated to be below 40, those with
the most severe form of mental retardation are labeled severe or profound, with
the latter having the most extreme form of impairment. Because of the severity of
their cognitive impairment, it is difficult, if not impossible, to get an accurate
measurement of their IQs.
The degree of cognitive impairment has implications to education. No amount of
instruction would be good or effective if there are deficits in intellectual and adaptive
functioning. Thus, teachers should take this in consideration when dealing with persons
with mental retardation.
 Learning Disabilities
The field of learning disabilities is the newest category of special education but
considered the largest and one of the more controversial. Learning disabled children are
those who despite being within the normal range of intelligence, were not achieving as
their expected potential because of some problems or conditions that affect their learning.
The most commonly accepted definition of learning disability is the one endorsed
by the U.S. Federal government.
“Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic
psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken
or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think,
speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term
includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. It does not include those
who have learning problems which are primarily the result of visual, hearing,
or motor handicaps, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of
environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage”. (Hallahan, 1998 , p. 126)
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The four factors considered in learning disabilities are:
1. IQ – achievement discrepancy
2. Presumption of central nervous system dysfunction
3. Psychological processing disorders
4. Learning problems not due to environmental disadvantage, mental retardation, or
emotional disturbance.
Hallahan (1998) listed the following ten most frequently found symptoms found in
learning disabled children.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
hyperactivity
perceptual-motor impairments
frequent shifts in emotional mood
general coordination deficits
disorders of attention (short attention span, distractibility, preservation)
impulsivity
disorders of memory and thinking
specific academic problems (reading-dyslexia, arithmetic-dyscalculia,
writing-dysgraphia,)
i. disorders of speech and hearing
j. equivocal neurological signs and EEG irregularities
Accurate and prompt assessment of learning disability is important to be able to help the
child with the appropriate intervention.
II. Sensory Disabilities
The individual’s ability to acquire, transform, and communicate information is
dependent on the use of his senses. Hence, student with sensory handicaps experience
difficulties in learning and without special assistance they will not succeed in the
traditional classroom situations.
Two common sensory handicaps are visual handicaps and auditory handicaps.
Visual handicaps come in the form of visual impairment and blindness. Auditory
handicaps include those with partial hearing called hearing impairment and the totally
deaf or without hearing capability.
III.Physical Handicaps
Persons with physical or health impairments are those who have functional
disabilities related to physical skills (e.g. hand use, body control, mobility) and/or
medical conditions (e.g. loss of strength or stamina) of such magnitude that they interfere
with the learner’s school attendance or learning. (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1986).
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IV. Speech and Language Disorders
Speech disorders refer to speech behavior which is sufficiently deviant from
normal or accepted speaking patterns that it attracts attention, interferes with
communication and adversely affects communication for either the speaker or the listener
(Gelfand, Jenson & Drew, 1982). This includes stuttering, disarticulation, and voice
disorders. Language disorders occur when “the child is not progressing systematically
and sequentially in any aspect of rule-governed and purposive linguistic behavior”.
Classified under language disorders are receptive language disorders, expressive
language disorders, and aphasia.
V. Mental Giftedness
Giftedness is something to be fostered, not eliminated. Yet it is not something a
child can show without fear of rejection or risk of stigma. Gifted children have the special
needs just like those with cognitive deficits or physical handicaps
Definitions of Giftedness
The traditional definition of giftedness is based on having a very high IQ as measured
by an individually administered intelligence test. The recognition of the many facets
of intelligence led to the reconceptualization of intelligence and giftedness
In a social definition of giftedness, Dehann & Havighurst (1980) regard the gifted child
as one “who is superior in some ability that can make him an outstanding contributor to
the welfare of, and quality of living in, society.”
Renzulli, Reis, & Smith (1981) gave a more encompassing definition in saying
that “for purposes of education, gifted children are those who have demonstrated or
shown potential for:
1. High ability (including high intelligence)
2. High creativity (the ability to formulate new ideas and apply them to the solution
of problems).
3. High task commitment ( a high level of motivation and the ability to see a project
through its conclusion.
Identification of the Gifted
Identification and assessment of giftedness is a complicated matter. It requires a
multiassesment procedure involving testing, interview, observation, use of rating scales
and analysis of creative outputs. Identification of potentially gifted children may include
intelligence scores, creativity measures, achievement measures and nominations from
teachers, parents, peers and self.
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Special Education for Gifted Children
Too often, the needs of gifted children taken for granted because of the emphasis
on educational equity. To emphasize the need to provide special education for gifted
students, Hallahan (1998) presented the following arguments:
1. “Every child is entitled to public education that meets his or her needs.
Because of their exceptional abilities, gifted children need special education if
they are to realize their potential for personal fulfillment and social
contribution.
2. Society will be best served if the talents of its most capable problem solvers
are cultivated. Gifted children are the most precious natural resource for
solving the future problems of society, and that resource can be ignored only
at great peril.” (p. 421.)
On the other hand, opponents of special education for the gifted argue that there is
danger of leaving some children out when only the ablest or those with great potential are
selected for special programs. In my opinion, all students with special needs be it
cognitive impairment, sensory or physical handicap or mental giftedness should be
accorded special education suited to their special needs.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Discuss any experience of interacting with or teaching a child who is special or
exceptional. Describe the characteristics and behavior of the child to identify
his/her exceptionality. Explain how you handled the situation.
2. Suppose you are teaching a class of third graders and one of your students display
the symptoms of ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) i.e.
hyperactivity, impulsivity and short attention span. How will you handle the
situation such that the learning of the whole class will not be compromised?
3.
Issue. “Opponents of acceleration fear that gifted children who are grouped with
older students will suffer negative social and emotional consequences, or that they
will become contemptuous of their age peers.” State your opinion for or against
this issue. Expound on your position.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
Gines, A. et. al. (1998) Educational Psychology. Manila: Rex Book Store.
Hallahan, D. (1998) Exceptional Children. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey:
Prenctice Hall.
Suba, E. (2003) Lecture Notes on Giftedness. College of Education, De La Salle
University.
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PERSONAL LEARNING JOURNAL FOR MODULE 5
Date:
Activity:
Reflections:
1. The topic/issue I particularly liked and would like to explore more is ___
______________________________________. It has caught my
attention/interest because ______________________________________
_________________________________________________.
2. The questions I have in relation to this topic/incident is/are
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
3. The knowledge/insights I gained from this module and the activities/were
____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________.
4. With this learning experience I intend to _________________________
_________________________________________________________.