Developing competent and confident game players using a ‘Play Practice’
methodology
Wendy Piltz
School of Physical Education, Exercise and Sport Studies
University of South Australia
Teachers and coaches are constantly seeking better ways of providing enjoyable learning
experiences in games and sports as a means to attaining a range of learner outcomes
including the development of competent and confident players.(Bunker & Thorpe, 1982;
Griffin, Mitchell, & Oslin, 1997; Launder, 2001) Players who learn the appropriate
skills and competencies for effective participation in encouraging settings begin to build
the intrinsic motivation patterns and positive dispositions towards activity that lay
important foundations for future active lifestyles. (Gudrun, 1999) Strategies that
enhance the development of individuals with these dispositions and skills combined with
a strong government health policy that advocates physical activity as a key factor in
promoting public health, are more likely to contribute to the development of a community
culture that is devoted to active play. This is particularly relevant in current times within
Australia where we are witnessing declining levels of involvement in physical activity
and subsequent health risk increases of the major health priorities including
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancers, injuries and mental health. (Bauman, Bellew,
Vita, Brown, & Owen, 2002)
Play Practice is a game based model for teaching and coaching sport that was conceived
by Alan Launder, an educator who has been deeply involved in sport for more than 50
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years as a competitor, teacher and coach. The Model is a culmination of professional
wisdom that has evolved from pragmatic experience using the process of ‘reflective
tinkering’ where ideas are created, actioned, evaluated, modified, discarded, and
improved upon in the form of an action research cycle. (Launder, 2001) The central
driving force that underpins this innovation has been the desire to solve the problem of
finding better ways of inducing young people to make sport an integral part of their lives.
The model is a strategy for improving the quality of sport education for all participants by
advancing professional practices in teaching and coaching.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the principles of the play practice approach and
to explore the strategies that are advocated for improving professional practice for
teaching and coaching sport.
The theoretical base that underpins practice
In order to improve the quality of the learning experiences presented in sport and
physical education settings professional practice must conform to quality teaching and
learning practice and be positioned within a relevant theoretical base. (Kirk &
MacPhail, 2002; Launder, 2001; Rink, French, & Graham, 1996; Rink, French, &
Tjeerdsma, 1996)
Play Practice, seeks to expand teachers and coaches knowledge of game theory by
addressing the construct of what is the nature of skilled performance in sport.
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This clarification provides coaches with a framework for undertaking a deeper analysis of
games and it is an essential component of improving professional practice because the
ability to analyze the game, underpins the process of constructing meaningful learning
experiences. The fundamental problem with traditional approaches to teaching games
has been the facile analysis of what is required to play them effectively. This is
evidenced in practices that overemphasize technique, that ignore the teaching of other
components of skilled play and that feature unrelated minor games and drills. When the
analytical framework provided by play practice is applied to construct and analyze
learning experiences it encourages a holistic view of effective performance and it ensures
that the instructors focus is directed to seeing the bigger picture of a players’
accomplishments.
Play practice provides sport educators with a principle based, pedagogical framework for
teaching players how to play games better. The principled nature of this approach is
significant because it promotes learning on a number of levels. Play practice provides an
array of pragmatic teaching strategies and tools that can immediately be used to guide
and inform professional practice. It also empowers professionals by providing them
with the insight into the relevant theory that underpins these practices. By integrating the
principles of instruction and game theory with relevant practice, educators are
encouraged to develop an understanding of the principles rather than just recalling
examples of practice. Armed with this understanding, teachers and coaches are more
likely to apply these principles within their professional practice and begin the process of
‘reflective tinkering’ that is an integral part of lifelong learning.
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Play Practices seeks to harness the motivational forces associated with play and games to
promote positive and purposeful involvement. Playful environments that stimulate player
interest and enable participants to retain the joy of participation are advocated. Adopting
strategies that promote intrinsic motivation including optimum challenge, task mastery,
game play, and game competence, as a positive basis for learning, creates these playful
settings. These principles reflect psychological approaches to motivation based on
internal control theory and their application in game settings. (Chandler, 1996; Glasser,
1998; Mitchell & Chandler, 1992; Stork, 2001)
Play practice principles and teaching strategies are consistent with constructivist
perspectives on learning (Perkins, 1999) and compatible with applied neuroscience
research on brain based teaching and learning . (Hannaford, 1995; Jensen, 1998)
The constructions of play practices are based on a sensitive consideration of the learners’
needs and making connections with previous experiences to scaffold and anchor learning.
This approach engenders a learner-centered perspective on instruction that promotes
inclusive practice, builds positive relationships, and generates non-threatening learning
environments that feature shared reflective learning cycles. Participants are empowered
to take responsibility for their learning and to work collaboratively to solve the problems
presented in various games settings. They play to learn and in the process build personal
competence and confidence and an array of other essential learning including thinking
skills, interdependence and personal responsibility.
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In order to guide professional practice in planning and delivery, the play practice
approach provides educators with a curriculum-planning framework based on
constructing student outcomes that reflect a thorough consideration of the nature of the
learner, the nature of the activity, the situational context and the constraints that are
operating. The key principles of maximum individual participation, alignment and
transfer are then embedded into the play practices that form the basis for attaining these
outcomes. Learning is further enhanced through the provision of feedback from a variety
of sources including self, peers, the instructor, video and through quality time for
reflection. The P’s model of pedagogy is presented to assist sport educators to become
reflective practitioners. It provides a clear model of the instructional process that
complements the play practice approach.
The pedagogical principles that underpin this model are consistent with research on
quality instruction. (Silverman & Ennis, 1996)
Key principles of the Play Practice Approach.
Where possible begin in a game.
Play practice features the use of games as the central learning experience to develop a
range of key player competencies. There are many advantages in using this medium for
learning including levels of player motivation and the quality of such highly aligned
environments for learning all elements of effective play. There are an array of games
that are advocated for use in the play practice approach including modified forms of the
real game termed mini or conditioned games, target games that assist in the development
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of technique, sector games and action fantasy games that help to enhance and motivate
participation. (Launder, 2001) A key precept in play practice is that where possible begin
the session by playing a game, and continue to do so as often as possible throughout the
session and subsequent sessions. This may not necessarily be the full game but it may be
a modified version of it. The game provides the overall context for learning. It
provides players with an opportunity to develop understanding, and to gain a picture of,
all of the elements that constitute effective play in that sport. The game context also
provides the learner with a framework for personal and team performance analysis and a
benchmark for future improvement. Most importantly it provides a foundation upon
which new learning is introduced and practiced in a meaningful way.
Players are more
motivated to learn if they are able to see the connections between what is being learnt and
the overall picture of effective performance in the sport. A central role for coaches and
teachers is to understand the elements of effective performance and to introduce these to
their players as a context for the scope of their learning. The type of game that is
selected will depend on the nature of the activity and the developmental level of the
players. For some activities, it may be possible to begin with a game that is very similar
to the real game. A good example is a mini game of 5 a side soccer that can be played
immediately following the clarification of primary rules pertaining to handball and
safety. For other activities, it may be necessary to modify the type of equipment, the
rules, or the playing space in order to present a game that promotes positive participation
as well as an aligned game context. Grip ball lacrosse is an example of this where grip
ball pads and ball replace the lacrosse stick to enable play in a mini game of end zone
lacrosse that uses the primary rules and game context of non-contact lacrosse.
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Characteristics of skilled play and effective performance.
Alignment of practice to the game context is a key precept of the play practice approach.
For this to happen coaches must undertake a skilful analysis of the game in order to
structure “game-like” situations, that match the learning needs of the players. They must
demonstrate a thorough understanding of the nature of the activity and acknowledge that
any definition of effective participation is always framed by a vast array of determining
factors, including social and cultural influences, within situational contexts. The
clarification of the nature of effective performance in sport and the defining of key
constructs is a significant addition to game theory that has emerged from the play
practice approach. Of note is the use of the term ‘technique’, to describe the actions of
players in games to controlling and redirecting the object. This definition has served to
clarify much of the confusion associated with the multifaceted use of the term skill. The
definition of the construct of ‘game sense’ further clarifies a key aspect of skilled
performance. Launder (2001), defines game sense as
‘the ability to use an understanding of the rules; of strategy; of tactics and most
importantly of oneself to solve the problems posed by the game or by one’s
opponents. Defined in this way, game sense bridges the gap between
understanding and action and incorporates the process of decision making.’
(Launder, 2001, pg 36)
Skilled play can then be understood as the combination of games sense with technical
ability. When viewed in this way it is possible to acknowledge how the relative
importance of technical ability and good decision-making as displayed in game sense can
vary from one game to another and that skilled performance is always contextual.
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In further clarifying the range of competencies required to be an effective player, Launder
(2001) outlines how technique and games sense, combine with other elements such as
knowledge of the rules, communication, athleticism, fitness and psychological and moral
resilience and reading the play. Each of these areas contributes to effective play in
various ways. Athleticism is needed to get quickly into the right spaces in games, a
knowledge of rules is required as it determines what can be done in the game, knowledge
of tactics permits good positioning and movement into space, communication ensures
team-work, fitness enables players to continue to get into the right places and maintain
good positioning throughout the game, technique allows the player to control and redirect
the object effectively, mental toughness and resilience enables the player to keep on
keeping on particularly in the tough phases of play. Being able to reading the play and
anticipate enables the player to have more time to make good decisions and react in game
play. This framework when applied to various games, provides practitioners with a
clearer and more detailed appreciation of the nature of the sport and identifies the array of
competencies need to be addressed in order to produce more skilful performers.
The processes of Play Practice.
The Play Practice approach indicates a clear process for educators to adopt in order to
inform their professional practice. Once the entry level of participants has been
determined, the coach uses the processes of shaping play, focusing play, and enhancing
play to create an array of meaningful learning. (Launder, 2001)
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Shaping play
Shaping play is about teaching through the game; it involves manipulating one or more
of the variables that form the game in order to create a variety of learning situations or
play practices that emphasize particular aspects of effective play. Thoughtful shaping of
learning experiences, in the form of target or sector games, can change isolated technique
practices into challenging and enjoyable play practices that promote the development of
technique in relevant contexts. In the same manner, repetitious and isolated drills can be
replaced by mini and conditioned games to develop game sense, tactical understanding
and reading the play, in an aligned, game like learning setting. (Launder, 2001)
The rules are a significant variable that can be adjusted to emphasize and reinforce
particular aspects of skilled play. For example, if you have been working on maintaining
possession of the ball then a ‘condition’ or rule such as five possessions before
attempting to score is included to promote this aspect of play. Another example is the
rule that limits the attackers to ‘two touches’ when controlling the ball in a mini game of
soccer, in order to develop passing and support positioning. Other rule changes can be
instigated to control the actions of the better players who may tend to dominate the game.
The number of players can be adjusted to increase player participation and to promote
specific learning. Mini games based on 3v3 basketball or 5v5 soccer are ideal smallsided games that increase the opportunity to learn techniques and tactics in a
‘microcosm’ of the full game. Player numbers can be manipulated to create imbalances
between the number of offensive and defensive players to simulate certain game
situations or to provide progression in learning of tactics and game sense. For example,
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a play practice that provides a numerical advantage to the attack, such as a 4v1 or a 3v1
game in soccer promotes the learning of passing and the ability to maintain possession of
the ball in a progressive way. An example of weighting the defence numbers, is a game
where there are 4 attackers and 5 defenders with the attacking team working to maintain
possession for a prescribed number of passes. This structure can be used in a variety of
games to create pressure and overload players, which can be valuable learning for teams
as they contend with game scenarios of increased defensive pressure. (Launder, 2001)
The size of the playing area, the scoring and goal dimensions can be manipulated to
create specific learning conditions. Playing space is a significant variable when shaping
the play because of its influence on the time available for players to demonstrate their
skill. The available space impacts on the time that players have to make good decisions
and to demonstrate good technique. Playing space is also important in some games as it
influences the potential balance of the contest. For example, softball mini games can be
played successfully with 5 a side numbers by reducing the width of the diamond and
including both a back fielding boundary and a short area to delineate fair territory. These
modifications ensure that the fielding team can cover the playing space fairly with
reduced playing numbers. Changes to the goal can influence the emphasis in play
formation. An example of this is the mini game of four-goal soccer that is played with
the two sets of goals positioned to the sides of each end line on a widened pitch. This
goal encourages the attackers to scan the field of play and response to defensive
concentration by switching and redirecting the play in attack.
Differentiated scoring can
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be used in many games to emphasize particular aspects of play value and to encourage
players to include those aspects in game play.
The equipment can be adjusted to enable players to enjoy the game experience and gain a
real sense of playing the game. There are many examples of user-friendly equipment
such as shortened rackets in badminton and tennis, slow bounce tennis balls, and soft
skinned balls that create an easier entrance for novices into game play. (Launder, 2001)
Focussing Play
The process of focusing play is about teaching in the game. Coaches can focus the play
by emphasizing the important concepts or cues of the play practice, and then reiterating
them in various ways to ensure quality and transfer of learning. The freeze replay is an
important tool for focusing the play and increasing player understanding and learning. It
is a strategy, which builds in time for reflection during game play. Players are required
to stop in response to a prescribed signal and then to engage in a process of reflection and
analysis of the recent play period. The method of reflection can occur in a directed way
with the coach providing the feedback, however indirect questioning approaches, self
reflection, or team discussions are more likely to engage the player in the thinking and
learning process. (Launder, 2001)
Enhancing Play
The process of enhancing the play is associated with various motivational strategies that
can be applied to maintain player commitment to purposeful play. Optimum challenge
tasks and creative game scenario’s called action fantasy games are examples of ways to
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enhance the play. Other strategies include setting the time frame of games to intensify
the game play, using an intelligent handicapping system to maintain close and uncertain
game results and celebrations of achievements.
Conclusion
The Play practice approach to teaching and coaching sport provides a comprehensive and
coherent framework that can be applied to improve professional practice in sport
education. Of particular significance is the contribution that this model makes to game
theory through the clarification of terms and the deeper analysis of the competencies of
effective sport performance. The approach provides new insights into the process of
teaching and learning and a clear direction of how to begin to shape more playful
learning environments for all participants. It challenges sport educators to think
critically about their current professional practice and encourages them to make their own
contribution to this innovation.
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