SELF LEARNING MODULE
IN
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
(ED 720)
ELIZABETH S. SUBA
and the
OPEN UNIVERSITY
Central Luzon State University
Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija
2
PREFACE
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) in
Psychology of Learning is
designed to help students understand learning from the psychological
standpoint. It focuses on the various approaches used in explaining how and
why people learn and explores how these theories would apply to the
teaching-learning process. Individual differences in learning, such as those
pertaining to motivation, reinforcement, intelligence, learning styles and the
assessment of learning are also covered.
This learning package consist of six (6) modules broken down into 22
lessons. Basic concepts and principles are presented followed by suggested
enrichment activities and assessment guide questions. These
are designed
to provide you with a solid knowledge base and actualize your learning
experiences. They aim to enhance your long-term learning by allowing you
to:
-
pace and monitor your own learning
-
frame the materials/concepts in your own terms
- come up with your own examples of the concept and their application
to teaching-learning process and everyday life.
- analyze and decide on the importance of the information to your own
fields of endeavor.
- write your own philosophy of learning and teaching.
You are advised to go through each topic, do the suggested activities
and participate in the discussion through the learning guides. My role in this
course as a facilitator of learning is to provide basic information about each
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topic and to structure the course so that you will most likely learn from the
materials and the tasks. But the final output will depend on your own
efforts. It is quite impossible to cover everything about the realm of human
learning. Thus, you are advised to supplement this material with additional
readings, exploring the world wide web, personal experience and actual
observation and interview of learners and facilitators of learning.
As part of your class portfolio, you will be required to write a personal
learning journal, the purpose of which is to stretch your learning from the
classroom/theoretical inputs to the real world so that your learning is
actualized and personalized. This will also help you write out your own
philosophy of learning and teaching.
There is a lot to learn about the psychological issues in learning. The
next page outlines our procedure in getting the most out of this learning
package. Join me in this journey on learning about human learning.
ELIZABETH S. SUBA, PhD.
Associate Professor
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COURSE STRUCTURE FOR ED 720
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
GENERAL COURSE OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the course, the students are expected to be able to:
1. Explain the basic concepts, factors, and principles involved in
learning.
2. Have a working knowledge of the various theoretical orientations
used in explaining how and why people learn.
3. Explain and cite examples on the application of the learning theories
in the teaching-learning process and actual life situation.
4. Utilize these theories and concepts in their own field of work as a
facilitator of learning.
5. Understand the nature of individual differences in learning.
6. Develop their own philosophy of teaching and learning.
CLASS FORMAT AND REQUIREMENTS:
You will be a self-regulated learner in this course. The basic
information about the concepts and theories being discussed will be
presented here and our discussion will be interactive through the CLSU
Open University website. Other queries and comments may be coursed
through my personal email accounts: [email protected] and
[email protected].
At the end of every module , you will encounter Enrichment Activities
and Assessment Guide Questions which aimed to synthesize your learning
and check how far you have gone in understanding the material.
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Your grade in this class will be determined by your performance and
output in the following requirements:
1. Enrichment Activities and Assessment Guide Questions which
may include Giving Examples, Integrative Essay, and Critical
Thinking. Your examples should be authentic and involves
human behavior that you have actually witnessed or experienced.
Integrative Essay and Critical Thinking consist of questions that
require a substantive explanation and you need to pull together
various pieces of information to draw a conclusion.
2. Class Portfolio which will serve two very important purposes: (a)
for me to know to what extent you have learned from this course,
and (b) for you to have a permanent record of what you have
learned. Your class portfolio is a repository of documents from
the class that consist of:
2.1. Answers to Enrichment Activities and Guide Questions
(including responses to my comments, if any)
2.2.
Personal Learning Journal. This is a personal reflection
and monitoring of your learning which may include
questions and insights drawn from what you have read in the
modules and other sources, reactions to issues raised, notes
on miscellaneous readings, anecdotes of actual life
experiences and how they relate to topics discussed and how
they influenced your learning. A suggested format is
presented but you are free to have your own style of writing.
2.3.
Personal Philosophy on Learning and Teaching. From
your own readings, activities, learning journal and actual life
experiences, you may draw your own line of thinking about
learning and teaching. Perhaps unknowingly you have been
following this philosophy all along in your learning and
teaching endeavors. This is the opportunity to write it out
and understand how this philosophy is running your life.
3. Final Examination – this will be an integration of all learning
derived from this course and its application to actual life situation
and the teaching-learning process.
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INTRODUCTION
This module is anchored on the following key themes in educating
children which are quoted by Santrock (2001) and also appeared in the
American Psychological Association’s learner-centered psychological
principles.
Every facilitator of learning should consider that:
 Successful learners are active, reflective thinkers who construct their
understanding.
 Successful learners develop positive learning
effectively monitor their learning.
strategies
and
 Successful learners are motivated to learn.
 Successful learners are goal-directed.
 Successful learners have teachers who adapt their instruction to the
developmental levels of the learners.
 Successful learners have teachers who pay attention to individual
differences in learning.
 Successful learners have teachers who understand that contexts play
important roles in learning.
 Successful learners have teachers who set appropriately challenging
standards and recognize that effectively assessing learning is an
integral dimension of the learning process.
Take time to reflect on these themes which epitomizes our goals in this
learning module.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
COURSE STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE ONE:
BASIC CONCEPTS ON LEARNING
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Lesson 1 The Nature of Learning
Lesson 2 Types of Learning
Lesson 3 Factors Affecting Learning
Lesson 4 Learning Theories
Enrichment Activities
Self-Quiz on “Your Emerging Theory/Philosophy of Learning”
Assessment
References
MODULE TWO BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES IN LEARNING
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Lesson 5 Classical Conditioning (I. Pavlov)
Lesson 6 Instrumental or Operant Conditioning (E. Thorndike and
B. F. Skinner)
Enrichment Activities
Assessment
References
MODULE THREE: COGNITIVE APPROACHES IN LEARNING
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Lesson 7
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Lesson 8
Information Processing Model and Memory
Lesson 9 Constructivism and Discovery Learning (J. Bruner)
Lesson 10 Verbal Learning (D. Ausubel)
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Lesson 11 Hierarchical Learning (R. Gagne)
Lesson 12 Social Constructivism (L. Vygotsky)
Enrichment Activities
Assessment
References
MODULE FOUR: SOCIAL/HUMANISTIC APPROACHES IN
LEARNING
Learning Objectives:
Introduction
Lesson 13 Social Learning (A. Bandura)
Lesson 14 Cooperative Learning
Lesson 15 Humanism and Learning
Lesson 16 Self-Regulated Learning
Enrichment Activities
Assessment
References
MODULE FIVE: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Lesson 17 Motivation
Lesson 18 Intelligence and Creativity
Lesson 19 Learning Styles
Lesson 20 The Exceptional Learner
Enrichment Activities
Assessment
References
MODULE SIX: ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Lesson 21 Educational Objectives and Learning Outcomes
Lesson 22 Standardized Tests vs Teacher-made Tests
Enrichment Activities
Assessment
References
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MODULE ONE
BASIC CONCEPTS IN LEARNING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After going through this module, the students are expected to be able
to:
1. Explain the nature of learning.
2. Differentiate learning from other types of behavioral changes.
3. Explain how learning concepts/theories evolved from its historical roots.
4. Cite examples of the different ways in which learning occurs
5. Describe the factors that hinder or facilitate learning
6. Explore his/her own thinking or philosophy about teaching and
learning.
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LESSON 1
THE NATURE OF LEARNING
Learning Defined
Learning occupies much of a person’s conscious and even
unconscious state. It is one of the most important facet of our being and that
makes it a well-discussed topic in present day psychology. The Webster’s
New World Dictionary (1994) defines learning as the acquiring of
knowledge of (a subject) or skill in (an art, trade etc.) by study, experience,
or instruction.
In determining whether learning has taken place, psychologists look
at behavioral changes as indicators. Most psychologists agree that learning
is a process, that it involves behavior changes and that it results from
practice or experience. (Craig, 1975; Hilgard 1975-1987; Lupdag,1984)
Kimble (1961), described learning as a relatively permanent change in
behavioral potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice.
Potentiality means that the change in behavior need not occur immediately
following the learning experience. For example, basketball players may
learn a new game strategy through lectures and film clips, but may not
translate that learning into behavior until the Sunday’s game. Kimble also
emphasized that only those responses that lead to reinforcement will be
learned.
As emphasized by Gagne and Driscol (1988), learning involves
interaction with the external environment (or with a representation of this
interaction stored in the learner’s memory). Learning is inferred when a
change or modification in behavior occurs that persists over relatively long
periods during the life of the individual.
Learning can be both a process and a product but most definitions
stress learning as a process because the products of learning include both
what one is capable of and what he is predisposed to.
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Learning As A Process
Most learning theorists view learning as a process that mediates
behavior. For them, learning is something that occurs as the result of certain
experiences and precedes changes in behavior. In such a definition, learning
is given the status of an intervening variable. An intervening variable is a
theoretical process that is assumed to take place between the observed
stimuli and responses.
The independent variables cause a change in the intervening variable
(learning), which, in turn, causes a change in the dependent variable
(behavior). The situation can be diagrammed as follows:
Independent
Variable
Intervening
Variable
Dependent
Variable
Experience
Learning
Behavioral
Changes
What Learning Is Not
Not all behavioral changes can be considered as learning. Those changes
in behavior that do not constitute learning are:
 changes caused by maturation or growth processes
 innate tendencies like reflexes, and
 temporary conditions caused by fatigue, drugs and diseases
In addition, changes produced by learning are not always positive in nature.
People learn bad habits and as well as good behavior. In fact, faulty learning
is the major cause of maladaptive or abnormal behavior according to the
behaviorist model.
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Early Notions About Learning
The discussion about knowing and how human beings acquire
knowledge dates back to the time of the famous Greek philosophers. The
views of Plato (427-347 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C) concerning the
nature of knowledge have influenced other thinkers and set philosophical
trends that have persisted until this day. While both recognized the role of
the mind in acquiring knowledge, they differ in position with regards to the
basis of knowledge.
Plato’s position is called nativism because he insists that knowledge is
inherited or innate. For Plato, one gain knowledge by reflecting on the
contents of the mind. He stressed that the mind must become involved
before knowledge is obtainable.
On the other hand, Aristotle forwarded empiricism with his view that
knowledge is not inherited but is a result of sensory experience which is the
basis of all knowledge.
The following laws of association formulated by Aristotle were
significant contributions to psychology.
 Law of Similarity – the expression or recall of one object will elicit the
recall of things similar to that object.
 Law of Contrast - the expression or recall of one object will elicit recall
of opposite things
 Law of Contiguity - the expression or recall of one object will elicit recall
of things that were originally experienced along with that object.
 Law of Frequency – the more frequently two things are experienced
together, the more likely it will be that the experience or recall of one will
stimulate the recall of the second.
Aristotle emphasized that sensory experience gives rise to ideas which
will stimulate other ideas in accordance with the laws of similarity, contrast,
contiguity, and frequency.
Other Historical Influences on Learning
Other thinkers and scientists and their significant contributions in the
study of knowledge and learning are as follows:
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Rene Descartes (1595-1650) - postulated a separation between the mind and
the body. He believed that the mind was free and could decide the actions of
the body.
John Locke (1632-1704)- posited that the human mind at birth, is a tabula
rasa, a blank slate and experience writes on it. He stressed that “There is
nothing in the mind that is not first in the senses”. He added that the mind is
made up of ideas, and ideas come from experience. Simple ideas come
directly from sensory experience, whereas complex ideas result from
combining simple ideas.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1776)- attempted to correct the impractical features
of both rationalism and empiricism. Rationalism can only involve the
manipulation of concepts, and empiricism confines knowledge to sensory
experience and its derivative. He introduced categories of thought called
“innate faculties” which though not empirically experienced can give
meaning to our experience of the physical world. These include reality,
unity, totality, existence, necessity, causality and reciprocity. His ideas were
picked up by the Gestaltists and Jean Piaget
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)- believed that simple ideas combine into a
new totality that may bear little resemblance to its parts. For example, if we
combine 2 primary colors, we produce a secondary color. His view that the
whole is more than the sum of its parts was later adopted by the Gestaltists.
Francis Galton (1822-1911)- devised a number of methods, such as the
questionnaire, psychological scales, and correlation, specifically designed to
measure individual differences. He changed philosophic questions such as
“How do humans know?” to “How do humans adjust to their environment?”
and “Given certain circumstances what do humans do?”. It led to scientific
inquiry on human behavior. He also made pioneering efforts in behavioral
assessment.
Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)- made a significant contribution in
liberating psychology from philosophy by demonstrating that the “higher
mental processes” of learning and memory could be studied experimentally.
Focusing on the law of frequency, he invented his now famous nonsense
syllable material which is used to study the rate of learning, He created
psychology’s first learning curve and first retention curve. He also found
that over learning reduces the rate or forgetting considerably.
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LESSON 2
TYPES OF LEARNING
Learning is classified in several ways, based on the psychological
make-up of a person, the context or learning situation, the extent of learning
and others.
Categories Based on Functioning
Learning is categorized depending on the three major facets of one’s
functioning i.e. cognitive (mental/perceptual), affective (social/emotional)
and psychomotor (physical/developmental).
1. Psychomotor - this type of learning starts at birth and continues
throughout the developmental stages. Maturation plays an important role
because the learning of psychomotor skills involves the use of muscles and
glands.
2. Cognitive
- this learning category gives emphasis on mental
development. The acquisition of knowledge and skills occur through mental
processes.
3. Affective this type of learning involves the heart and emotions as
values and attitudes are inculcated in the person. It leads to creativity
learning, discovery and appropriate expression of feelings. The
internalization process comes in, putting into practice what one has learned.
Some schools focus only on the psychomotor and cognitive aspects of
learning, to the neglect of this one important factor in the psychological
make-up of a person, the affective domain.
Types According to Processes
Aside from the learning categories described above, learning can be
classified as formal and informal; verbal and non-verbal; or perfectionoriented and performance oriented. Interestingly, learning occurs in four
major ways—transmission, acquisition, accretion and emergence
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Transmission is the process by which information, knowledge, ideas and
skills are taught to others through purposeful, conscious telling,
demonstration, and guidance. Over the course of a lifetime, this method
accounts for only about 10% of learning. Unfortunately, this is the most
traditional and, currently, the most predominate method of instruction.
However, we are finding out it is not very effective and so must move
toward acquisition and emergence, and examine the lessons of accretion.
Acquisition is the conscious choice to learn. Material in this category is
relevant to the learner. This method includes exploring, experimenting, selfinstruction, inquiry, and general curiosity. Currently, acquisition accounts
for about 20% of what we learn.
Accretion is the gradual, often subconscious or subliminal, process by
which we learn things like language, culture, habits, prejudices, and social
rules and behaviors. We are usually unaware that the processes involved in
accretion are taking place, but this method accounts for about 70% of what
we know.
Emergence is the result of patterning, structuring and the construction of
new ideas and meanings that did not exist before, but which emerge from the
brain through thoughtful reflection, insight and creative expression or group
interactions. This form of learning accounts for the internal capacities of
synthesis, creativity, intuition, wisdom, and problem-solving. This method is
greatly dependent on the allocation of time, and opportunities to reflect and
construct new knowledge. It plays an important role in inspiration and
originality. In the context of current educational practices, we learn only 12% by this method.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Read more about the early notions about learning and answer the
following questions:
1.1. Plato and Aristotle differ in their views about knowledge. Plato
stresses on Nativism while Aristotle emphasizes on Empiricism in
explaining the nature of knowledge. To which point of view do you
subscribe or agree with? Why?
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1.2. John Locke believes that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa ( a blank
slate) and experience writes on it. Do you agree or disagree? Cite your own
experiences in learning and teaching to expound your answers.
2. Based on your own experience, list 5 examples of what you have learned
under each of the four ways of learning—transmission, acquisition,
accretion and emergence. Categorize these learning into psychomotor,
cognitive, affective. Explain how learning has taken place in each
example.
LEARNING EXPERIENCE
CATEGORY
Transmission :
1. __________________________
___________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________
4. __________________________
5. __________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
Acquisition:
1. __________________________
___________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________
4. __________________________
5. __________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
Accretion:
1. __________________________
___________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________
4. __________________________
5. __________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
Emergence:
1. __________________________
___________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________
4. __________________________
5. __________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
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LESSON 3
FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
Learning is either facilitated or hindered by several factors which may
be intrinsic or extrinsic to the individual learner. These factors that affect
learning may be grouped into three categories namely the learner, the
teacher and the environment/culture.
The Learner
As the recipient or end-user in learning, the learner is an important
factor in the teaching-learning process. He is the only one who can say
whether learning has taken place and to what extent. In addition, the learner
brings to the teaching-learning situation several variables that may facilitate
or hinder learning.
The sex and age of the learner are important factors because learning
rates may vary across sex and ages. A related factor is intelligence which
may vary among learners and may even decline with age.
The learner’s values, interests, aspirations, and motivation to learn
will greatly affect the rate of learning as well as its retention. Two other
important learner factors which teachers should take into account are their
learning styles and personality. Current thinking consider emotional
intelligence on equal footing with cognitive intelligence as important factors
in the success of people. Some of these important learner factors will be
discussed lengthily in Module 5 of this learning package.
The Teacher/Facilitator
The teacher or the person facilitating learning is equally important for
effective learning to occur. Some people construe that learning depends
heavily on the teacher because he/she is the provider of knowledge and skills
to be learned. Thus, educators advocate that if teaching and learning is to be
improved, the improvement must first start with the teacher. Some of the
teacher variables that were identified by Lupdag (1984) as crucial to the
teaching-learning process are discussed below:
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1. Sex – Studies show that the teacher’s gender have an effect on the
socialization of learners. Female teachers tend to give more
opportunities to female students who in turn are more responsive to
them. However, there are differences in social interaction in the
elementary, secondary and tertiary levels. More so, sex differences in
classroom interaction depends on the teachers and students
themselves.
2. Age – The age of the teacher affects his/her social, emotional and
perceptual functioning as well as the thinking, interests, and values,
These may influence his relationship and credibility with his students.
3. Academic Qualifications – a teacher who has better academic
preparation is more likely to deliver good teaching than one who is
underqualified. However, it is not only mastery of the subject matter
that counts in effective teaching but it is more of effective methods
and teaching strategies that the teacher employs.
4. Intelligence and Aptitude – As facilitators of learning, teachers are
expected to possess at least an average IQ and aptitude for teaching. It
is assumed that the higher the abilities of the teacher, the better
equipped they are in teaching. It is for these reasons that there are now
more stringent requirements for teaching such as passing the
Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET).
5. Experience – There is no doubt that teacher who has 10 years of
teaching experience would be more efficient than a neophyte because
he/she is said to have mastered the craft. “Experience is the best
teacher” so they say and “seasoned faculty” are expected to show
better performance. However, other factors such as age, intelligence
and aptitude, and personality may interact with experience.
6. Interests – To be effective, a teacher must in the first place have
interest in teaching as a career, in the subject matter that he/she
teaches, and in the type of learners that he/she deals with.
7. Motivation – Aside from having the interest, teachers should also be
highly motivated to pursue a teaching job. Achievement, recognition,
responsibility, interpersonal relations and supervision are good
sources of job satisfaction. Unfortunately, economic considerations
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remain to be a predominant motivator that moves teachers to seek
extra income, pursue other jobs or seek greener pastures abroad. The
teacher’s values are equally important. If he/she values selffulfillment more that monetary rewards, this will influence his/her
efforts in facilitating learning.
8. Personality – For some students, it is not what the teacher teachers
but how he/she deals with them that matters most. Thus, the
approachable, friendly, kind, patient, and lenient teacher is more
appreciated than one who is unapproachable, rigid, strict, impatient,
and authoritative.
In addition to the above-mentioned variables, other teacher characteristics
that are worth considering are their emotional intelligence, stress
management skills, and teaching styles. More people are now recognizing
that EQ matters more than IQ. It is not only the abilities but how a person
manages his emotions and copes with stressful situations that contributes
more to successful undertaking. Likewise, if a teacher matches his/her
teaching style with the student’s learning styles, it will more likely result to
better teaching and learning.
With advanced technology, the role of the teacher or facilitator of learning
may be delegated to a machine or a computer. E-learning and interactive
education, with their benefits in terms of fast communication, global
competitiveness and innovative learning would continue to dominate the
field of education. Nonetheless, this type of learning still needs to be done
under the supervision of a human being, a well-experienced teacher.
Environment/Culture
Environment refers to the social and physical environment or forces
that are external to the individual. The family, neighborhood, school, church,
friends/barkadas, society and mass media all constitute the social
environment that can influence learning, either positively or negatively. On
the other hand, the physical environment consists of the school structure and
facilities, learning materials and equipment which should provide a
conducive setting for effective learning to take place. The environment
should also be seen in the context of cultural changes and acculturation that
impacts on society.
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LESSON 4
LEARNING THEORY
Knowledge about learning can be accumulated by scientific methods.
When such knowledge is adequately verified through empirical data, it can
be expressed as learning principles. When these principles appear to be
congruent with each other and makes rational sense, a model of the learning
process can be constructed. Elaborations of this model (or other alternative
models) become learning theories
.
An example of a Principle of Learning is this:
“Facts are learned more readily when they can be meaningfully
related by the learner to a kind of memory structure already
possessed by the learner”.
Tria et. al. (1998) defines a theory as a set of interrelated constructs,
concepts principles and hypotheses which attempt to explain, predict, or
control a set of phenomenon. Within this view, a learning theory can be
defined as a formulation of the conditions and principles that lead to learning
that would explain the nature of the learning process. It involves systemized
interpretations of observations about learning, attempting to explain the
“hows” and “whys” of learning. It presents, describes, explains, or predicts
conditions under which learning would or would not occur.
To this day, the Philippines is still wanting on the formulation of
theories of learning that are Filipino-based. There are some views and
principles though that were forwarded by some noted Filipino psychologists.
Two of these were quoted by Lupdag (1984):
1. On the Filipino learning style Dr. Virgilio Enriquez (1997) wrote:
“The Filipino seems to be most effective when he is exposed to a
material as a meaningful whole. While he appreciate parts, he
tackles them simultaneously or sequentially. He does this not
according to an inflexible and pre-conceived plan but according to
the most efficient combination of interaction between the
exigencies of the situation and the changing demands of the active
21
self. The Filipino would rather control his schedule than allow
himself to become a compulsive victim of an imposed structure.”
2. On the practice of learning in Philippine context Jose W. Diokno (1978)
stressed that.
“For the Filipino, learning for the sake of knowledge but which is
not used is not learning at all.” This is shown by the fact that
Filipino who knows a lot (labis sa dunong) but who lacks action
(kulang sa gawa) is not appreciated.
Though not systematically organized into a learning theory, these are
indigenous concepts relevant to learning among Filipinos. In our efforts to
systematically study the Filipino psyche, we must continuously search for
these locally-based concepts and principles as they apply to our everyday
lives.
Most theories of learning that we will discuss have Western
orientation. Thus, their relevance in explaining how Filipinos learn should
be used with flexibility and should be seen within the context of Asian and
Philippine culture.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Based on your own experiences, list examples of factors inherent to you
as the learner, to your teacher and your environment that have either
facilitated or hindered your learning. Explain how these influenced your
learning.
Learner Factors
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
Facilitating
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Hindering
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
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Teacher Factors
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
Facilitating
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Hindering
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
Environment/Cultural Factors
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
Facilitating
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Hindering
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
2. Self-quiz “ “Your Emerging Theory/Philosophy of Teaching and
Learning”
As a starter in this course, you may be interested to check yourself to see
how you view teaching and learning. Just follow the simple instructions.
Print a copy of the rating scale. Then, using the scale below rate the extent of
your agreement with each of the following statements. Write a 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, or 7 on the blank space before each item depending on your opinion.
Please rate every statement but note that you cannot give a rating of 4.
1= strongly disagree 2= disagree for the most part 3= disagree a little
5= agree a little
6= agree for the most part
7= strongly agree
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____1. Students learn best when they receive good grades, praise or other
rewards for a job well done.
____2. Children learn best when they discover answers for questions and
problems themselves.
____3. Learning has occurred when there is a measurable change in student
behavior.
____4. School learning should involve the total development of the person.
____ 5. Learning requires concept formation and mental construction of
knowledge into concept systems.
____ 6. Fostering social and emotional development is just as important as
the development of academic skills.
____ 7. Learning occurs best when the overall task is broken down into a
sequence of short steps.
____ 8. It is important to help students organize their thinking by teaching
them general concepts and principles first.
____ 9. Students can be trusted to find their own goals and should be given
choices as to what and how to learn.
____ 10. Helping students feel good about themselves is just as important as
the academic skills they are taught.
____ 11. Students learn best when they observe a demonstration or model of
the skill and then practice it.
____ 12. Learning is most effective when students are taught problem
solving and other thinking/learning skills.
____ 13. Significant learning only takes place when the subject matter is
perceived by the student as having relevance in his/her life and
when personal meaning can be attributed.
24
____ 14. The teacher should be a facilitator of learning rather than a
presenter of knowledge.
____ 15. Objectives or outcomes should be identified and stated before the
teaching process begins.
____ 16. If information is organized properly, students can learn very
effectively through teacher presentation.
____ 17. For the most effective learning, students’ errors should be
minimized and successes maximized.
____ 18. It is crucial that instruction be organized so as to help students
grasp the major concepts of the subject.
____ 19. Self-paced, independent learning materials (such as computerbased programs) that provide for immediate reinforcement of
correct responses are effective means of instruction.
____ 20. Students learn most effectively when they are allowed to rely on
their own experiences and background knowledge to mentally
“construct” their own, personal understandings of course concepts.
SCORING AND INTERPRETING THE RATING SCALE
After you have answered the 20 items,
1. Write the following letter(s) beside your rating to each item:
B for items 1, 3, 7, 11, 15, 17, and 19
C for items 2, 5, 8, 12, 16, 18, and 20
H for items 2, 4, 6, 9, 10, 13, and 14
(Note that item # 2 will have both a C and an H next to it)
2. Now add up the total of your ratings for all the Bs, Cs, and Hs. You
should have three totals between 7 and 49.
25
3. Each of the three totals tells you the extent of your agreement with one of
the three teaching models: B for Behaviorism, C for Cognitive, and H for
Humanism.
4. Examine the items which you have given the highest ratings. This
suggests your working philosophy or viewpoint with regards to teaching and
learning.
If the results came as a surprise to you this is an important opportunity to
explore the various learning/teaching models that will be discussed.
2. Exercise on the Uses of Learning Theories
1. List some ways in which the following individuals can utilize or benefit
from learning theories:
Policy-Makers ____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
School Administrators
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Teachers
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Learners
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Parents
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
26
The Community___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
Others Involved In The Teaching-Learning Process.
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
PERSONAL LEARNING JOURNAL
Date:
Activity: (may involve reading, observing, conducting training or any topic
relevant to learning).
Responses:
1. The topic/issue I particularly liked and would like to explore more is
_________________________________________. It has caught my
attention and interest because _________________________________
___________________________________.
2. The questions I have in relation to the topics and issues are
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________.
3. The knowledge/insights I gained from this module and the activities are
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________.
4. With this learning experience I intend to __________________________
______________________________________________________.
27
REFERENCES
Books.
1. Domjan, M. (1993) The Principles of Learning and Behavior 3rd
ed., California: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
2. Gines, Adelaida C., et. al. (2002) Educational Psychology. Manila:
Rex Book Store.
3. Lupdag, Anselmo D. (1984) Educational Psychology. Quezon City:
National Book Store.
4. Tria, G., Limpingco, D. and Jao, L. (1998) Psychology of Learning.
Quezon City: KEN Inc.
5. Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York:
McGraw Hill, New York.
6. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts:
Allyn and Bacon.
Websites:
1.
W. Huitt and J. Hummel Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning.
28
MODULE 2
BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES IN LEARNING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After going through this module, the students are expected to
be able to:
1. Explain the mechanics and principles involved in
association learning and conditioning.
2. Compare classical and operant conditioning, and give
examples of each.
3. Give examples of four different kinds of consequences
that can follow any behavior and the effect each is likely
to have on future behavior.
4. Describe situations that
illustrate the effects of
reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment.
5. Compare and analyze the effect of using different
schedules of reinforcement.
29
INTRODUCTION
A number of theories on learning have been proposed. Some evolve
from previous notions of their predecessors. Although some theories differ
and some overlap in their formulations, these formulations are broadly
classified as behavioral and cognitive. A third category being recognized is
the social-humanistic domain. Others are a combination of the concepts and
principles found in the behavioral, cognitive, and social viewpoints.
Psychologists subscribing to Behaviorism believe that behavior
should be explained by observable experiences, not by mental processes. On
the other hand, the cognitive psychologists maintain that mental process
mediate between the stimulus impressions and the corresponding response
actions of an organism.
For the behaviorist, behavior is everything that we do that can be
observed. For example, a child tying the laces of her shoes or a teacher
smiling at a student who helps in erasing the blackboard.
Mental processes include the thoughts, feelings and motives that each
of us experiences but that cannot be observed by others. Although they
cannot be seen by the naked eye, these mental processes are no less real.
Examples are: a child thinking about ways to tie her shoe lace, or a teacher
feeling good about a child who is very helpful.
30
LESSON 5
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning occurs when a person forms a mental
association between two stimuli so that encountering one stimulus makes the
person think of the other stimulus. People tend to form these mental
connections between stimuli that occur simultaneously or become closely
together in time and space.
In his experiments on digestion, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
noticed that the dogs in his laboratory began to salivate just at the mere sight
of the keeper, even before they could see or smell the food to be given.
His series of experiments led to the formulation of Classical
Conditioning, which won for Pavlov the Nobel Prize in 1904 (Tria,
Limpingco and Jao (1998). Classical conditioning is a type of learning
wherein an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli. A neutral
stimulus (such as the sight of a person) becomes associated with a
meaningful stimulus (such as food) and acquires the capacity to elicit a
similar response (Santrock 2001).
Classical conditioning involves two types of stimuli and two types of
responses.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is one that by itself “naturally”
produces an unconditioned response (UR) without any prior training or
learning. In Pavlov’s experiments, food or meat powder is the US. Salivation
is an unconditioned response (UR) because it is a natural or automatic
reaction to food, especially for one who is hungry. Thus, everytime the food
is presented, the dog salivates.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral one that
eventually elicits a conditioned response after being associated with the
unconditioned stimulus (food). The bell was a first a neutral stimulus and the
dog did not salivate with the sound of the bell. But with repeated pairing of
the ringing of the bell with the food, the bell acquired the characteristics of
the food, that is eliciting salivation on the dog.
31
The bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the dog’s salivation
to the sound of the bell is a conditioned response (CR). According to
Santrock, (2001) conditioned response is a learned response to the
conditioned stimulus that occurs after the US-CS pairing.
This type of learning by conditioning is illustrated as follows:
Before Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (bell) ----------------- Response (no salivation)
U S (food) --------------------- U R (dog salivates)
During Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (bell) + U S (food) ------------ U R (dog salivates)
After Conditioning
C S (bell) --------------------- C R (dog salivates)
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning involves four main processes: acquisition,
generalization, discrimination, and extinction.
1.
Acquisition
This involves the initial learning of the conditioned response. For example,
the dog learning to salivate at the sound of the bell. Two important factors
that can affect the speed of conditioning during the acquisition phase are the
order and timing of the stimuli. Conditioning occurs most quickly when the
conditioned response (bell) precedes the unconditioned stimulus (food) by
about half a second. If the time interval is quite long or if the food is
presented first before the bell, conditioning is less likely to occur.
32
2.
Generalization
It involves the tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned
stimulus to produce a similar response. In the experiment of John Watson on
the baby named Albert, the fear of white rat that was developed in Albert
was generalized to other white and furry animals. In like manner, a student
who developed fear in a male teacher after an embarrassing incident may
later fear all male teachers.
3.
Discrimination
In contrast to generalization, in discrimination, an individual learns to
produce a conditioned response to one stimulus but not to another stimulus
that is similar. For example, a child may show a fear response to large black
dogs roaming in the yard, but not to dogs who are in a cage.
4.
Extinction
A conditioned response (salivation) can be eliminated or weakened by
repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (bell), without the
unconditioned stimulus (food). Thus, the bell looses its capacity to elicit a
conditioned response (salivation).
5.
Spontaneous Recovery
A response that had been learned and then extinguished can reappear
spontaneously when the conditioned stimulus is again presented.
Spontaneous recovery indicates that learning is not permanently lost.
Applications and Contributions of Classical Conditioning
1. It helps us understand some concepts of learning better than others. It
excels in explaining how neutral stimuli become associated with
unlearned involuntary responses.
2. It aids in explaining many emotional responses such as happiness,
excitement, anger and anxiety- that people have for certain stimuli.
3. It helps explain the underlying cause of some phobias – which are
irrational or excessive fears of specific objects or situations.
4. Classical conditioning procedures are likewise used to treat phobias
and other unwanted behaviors such as alcoholism and addictions.
33
LESSON 6
INSTRUMENTAL OR OPERANT CONDITONING
Classical conditioning is helpful in understanding student’s fears and
anxieties.. However, it is not as effective in explaining voluntary behaviors,
such as why a student studies hard for a test or likes history better than
sociology. For these domains, operant conditioning is more relevant.
The major theorists in operant conditioning are Edward Thorndike,
John Watson and B.F. Skinner. They proposed that learning is the result of
the application of consequences, that is, learners begin to connect certain
responses with certain stimuli. This connection causes the probability of the
response to change, thus, learning occurs.
Thorndike’s Connectionism and S-R Theory
Edward Lee Thorndike’s experiment with hungry cats in a puzzle box
was a precursor to B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning. Thorndike called
this type of learning “instrumental” because through trial and error method
the cat was able to open the latch (e.g. an instrument) inside the box and was
able to escape from the box to get the food outside.
From his studies on cats, dogs, and chickens, Thorndike came up with
his Laws of Learning. He recognized two components of learning, the
stimulus (S) and the responses (R ). For him, learning involves the
establishment of Stimulus-Response connections thus paving the ways for
the development of the S-R theory of learning. His method is also called
association learning or connectionism because it involves forming bonds
between the stimulus impressions and the responses. The Laws of Learning
which is still influential in modern thinking and practice are:
1. Law of Effect – it states that behavior followed by a positive outcome
or reward are strengthened and those followed by a negative
consequence or dissatisfiers are weakened. Thus, the strengthening or
weakening of the S-R bond is dependent on the consequence or what
follows the response. For example, when a pupil is praised for doing
well in his project, he continues to strive to have superior work. On
34
the other hand, if he is not recognized for his efforts and was even
criticized, he may not strive to improve his performance.
2. Law of Readiness – it posits that when the S-R connections are ready
to conduct, then the learner is ready to learn. This readiness to learn
differs from maturation which is a prerequiste to learning. As
emphasized by Lupdag (1984). readiness to learn here refers to a
temporary neurophysiological state which Sprinthall and Sprinthall
referred to as neurologically “teachable moment”. Thus a child is
ready to learn to dance when his bones are matured for such an
activity and when he has the mind set and eagerness to learn.
3. Law of Exercise- it simply means that learning occurs with constant
practice. The S-R connections are strengthened when these are used
and rehearsed and are weakened when not utilized. The drill method is
a good example of the use of this law.
B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Burrhus Freferick Skinner used to term “operant conditioning”
because he described the organism as “operating” on and influenced by the
environment. Whereas classical conditioning illustrates S-R pattern, operant
conditioning is often viewed as R-S learning. It is the consequence that
follows the response that influences whether the response will be repeated.
In the famous Skinner’s box, there is a lever or bar that operates to
dispense pellets or food. A hungry rat was placed inside the box. As the rat
moves around and explores the box, it accidentally pressed the lever that
dispensed the food. Later, the rat was conditioned to “intentionally” press
the lever to get the food.
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences
of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur
(Santrock 2001). These consequences of behavior are reinforcement and
punishment
Reinforcement (reward) is a consequence that increases the
probability that a behavior will occur, while punishment is a consequence
that decreases the possibility for the occurrence of a behavior.
35
Reinforcement can be positive or negative. In positive reinforcement, a
behavior increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus (such as a
praise). In negative reinforcement, a behavior increases because the
consequence is a removal of an unpleasant stimulus. The result in both is
reinforced behavior. Examples of Reinforcement and Punishment are as
follows:
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
BEHAVIOR
CONSEQUENCE
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Student gives a good
answer to teacher’s
questions.
BEHAVIOR
Student submits
Homework on time
BEHAVIOR
Student makes noise
in class
Teacher
student.
praises
the
Student give more
good answers
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
CONSEQUENCE
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Teacher stops
criticizing student.
PUNISHMENT
CONSEQUENCE
Teacher verbally
reprimands the student.
Student increasingly
submits homework
on time.
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Student stops
making noise in class
Schedules of Reinforcement
Skinner developed schedules of reinforcement which are important to
determine when a response will be reinforced.
1. Continuous Reinforcement the behavior is followed by a
consequence each time it occurs. For example, every time the student
volunteers to erase the blackboard, the teacher gives praises.
36
2. Intermittent Reinforcement – this is based either on the passage of
time (interval schedule) or the number of correct responses emitted (ratio
schedule). It consist of four types.
a) fixed ratio – a behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses.
This schedule is recommended for learning a new behavior.
Examples: a weekly quiz; a candy for every 5 correct words spelled.
b) variable ratio – a behavior is reinforced after an average number of
times which changes on an unpredictable basis. This schedule is best
for maintaining behavior. For example a reward is given after the 2nd
correct response, after 8 more correct responses, then after the next 5
more correct responses.
c) fixed-interval – the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of
time is reinforced. For example, a praise is given to a correct
response after every 2 minutes have elapsed.
d) variable- interval – a response is reinforced after a variable amount of
time has elapsed. For example, the teacher might praise a student
after 5 minutes, then after 8 minutes, then after 15 minutes have gone
by.
APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Aside from positive and negative reinforcement, there are other
principles of operant conditioning that can be applied in learning.
1. The Premack Principle
Named after David Premack (1965), this principle states that a high
frequency behavior (a preferred activity) can be an effective reinforcer for a
low frequency behavior (less preferred activity). This is sometimes called
“Grandma’s Rule: first do what I want you to do, then you may do what you
want to do”. For the Premack principle to be effective, the low-frequency
(less preferred) behavior must happen first.
37
Examples:
a) less preferred activity - for students to finish their seatwork or study
a new lesson.
b) preferred activity - moving around the room, reading magazines, playing
games, talking about a film, or being exempt from
assignments.
Teachers can use this principle to encourage their students to finish their
school work. first before they will be allowed to do other things.
2. Shaping
The method of successive approximation is used to shape behavior. A
target goal or desired behavior is set. Then the individual is rewarded for
each small step taken that would lead to the final goal or target response.
With the use of this method, it is possible to train animals in complex
behavior. In the case of humans, the procedure for teaching a complex
behavior is to start b reinforcing partial responses, the small bits of
behavior that leads to the whole, and little by little, a complete response
is shaped. And once the desired behavior is learned it may not need
reinforcing anymore.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Observe a group of people (students, teachers, others) undergoing training
or instruction or engaging in an activity. Note and list instances where
conditioning (classical or operant) has taken place. Explain why you
consider such as examples of conditioning.
Date:
Activity:
Participants:
38
Examples of Conditioning Instances:
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
OPERANT CONDITIONING:
________________________________________________________
2.. Read thoroughly about the experiment of John B. Watson on a baby
named Albert who was conditioned to fear a small white rat by pairing the
sight of the rat with a loud noise. Why was the experiment ethically
questionable?
3. How can a learned behavior be eliminated? Give concrete examples and
show how this specific learned behavior can be weakened or eliminated
through conditioning
PERSONAL LEARNING JOURNAL
Date:
Activity:
Reflections:
1. The topic/issue I particularly liked and would like to explore more is ___
______________________________________. It has caught my
attention/interest because ______________________________________
_________________________________________________.
2. The questions I have in relation to this topic/incident is/are
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
3. The knowledge/insights I gained from this module and the activities/were
____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________.
4. With this learning experience I intend to _________________________
_________________________________________________________.
39
REFERENCES
Books.
7. Domjan, M. (1993) The Principles of Learning and Behavior 3rd
ed., California: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
8. Gines, Adelaida C., et. al. (2002) Educational Psychology. Manila:
Rex Book Store.
9. Lupdag, Anselmo D. (1984) Educational Psychology. Quezon City:
National Book Store.
10.Tria, G., Limpingco, D. and Jao, L. (1998) Psychology of Learning.
Quezon City: KEN Inc.
11.Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York:
McGraw Hill, New York.
12.Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts:
Allyn and Bacon.
Websites:
1.
W. Huitt and J. Hummel Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning.