State University – Higher School of Economics
Faculty of Applied Political Science
Essay:
“Amnesty International as a global actor”
Executed by
student
E. Borsuk
Controlled by
professor
N. Belyaeva
Moscow - 2009
Introduction ................................................................................ 3
1. The origin of Amnesty International ....................................... 4
2. The structure of Amnesty International .................................. 7
3. Main activities of Amnesty International ................................ 9
3.1. Methods of researches and campaigning ........................................................ 9
3.2. Projects of Amnesty International ................................................................ 10
3.3. Amnesty International and United Nation .................................................... 12
Conclusion ................................................................................ 14
Literature: ................................................................................. 15
2
Introduction
I would like to consider Amnesty International (AI) as the organization which influences
on the global policy.
AI is the organization based on the international voluntary membership, and consists of
sections, structures, the international networks, groups and the international members.
As it represented on the web-site AI is a worldwide movement of people who campaign for
internationally recognized human rights to be respected and protected for everyone. Their main
activity is to conduct research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human
rights and to demand justice for those whose rights have been violated.
Working with and for individuals the world over, the organization campaign so that every
person may enjoy all of the human rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. They take, for example, the following action: stop violence against women; defend the
rights and dignity of those trapped in poverty; abolish the death penalty; oppose torture and
combat terror with justice; free prisoners of conscience; protect the rights of refugees and
migrants; regulate the global arms trade. Thousands of AI members respond to Urgent Action
appeals on behalf of individuals at immediate risk. Publicity through the news media and the
internet takes their message in many languages to millions of people.
I should try to prove that this organization is a global actor. In my opinion the criteria for
beeing global actor are:

The scale of resolving problems – organization aims to resolve global problems

Involvement of superpower

Developed organizational structure with offices in different countries

Effectiveness of the campaigns which organization have realized in order to resolve
global problems

Independence of the organization, firstly in financial meaning
I will try to make some research through the internet sources.
Main issues of this work:
- to consider the origin of this organization
- to search the structure of this organization
- to analyze the main activities of AI on the concrete examples
- to evaluate influence of the organization on the global political processes
In the worlds of AI their members and supporters exert influence on governments, political
bodies, companies and intergovernmental groups. It means this organization campaign globally
and locally.
3
I think it is the main reason to suppose that is the global actor. Let’s try to prove it.
1. The origin of Amnesty International
Amnesty International was established in July 1961 in London by English lawyer Peter
Benensonom.
On May, 28th, 1961 in the newspaper «The Observer» article of Benensona «Forgotten
prisoners» has been published. The material drove attention of readers to position of people who
«have imprisoned, tortured or executed only that their opinion or religious beliefs were
unacceptable for the authorities»1. Article pay attention on the infringement by the governments
according articles 18 and 19 of the United declarations of human rights. In article it was said that
these infringements have global character and there are in the conditions of infringement of
freedom of the press, the right to political opposition both timely and open trial in impartial
courts, and also rights to a refuge. The publication has marked the campaign beginning
«Campaign for amnesty — 1961». Its purpose consisted in operative mobilisation of wide public
opinion in protection of the persons which Benenson named prisoners of conscience. The
reference «Campaign for amnesty — 1961» was published in the set of the international
newspapers.
In July, 1961 the management has decided that the reference will make a basis of work
constantly operating organisation. On September, 30th, 1962 it has received official name AI.
From the date of basis AI research work and campaigns have held a firm place in its activity. The
organisation has created library of documents on prisoners of conscience and a network of local
groups under the name «THREES».
In the middle of 1960th years global presence AI has extended, and the organisation has
founded the International secretary and the International executive committee. These bodies
were created for management of national divisions AI, that is sections which have appeared in a
number of the countries. The international movement began to co-ordinate basic principles and
methods of the work. For example, when there was a question on, whether to be engaged in
affairs of the prisoners propagandising violence (such as Nelson Mandela), movement has
unanimously agreed it is impossible to recognise as prisoners of conscience. Field of AI activity
extended, and besides creation of library and work of groups, the organisation began to assist
relatives of prisoners, to direct observers on litigations, to do representations in the governments
1
Benenson, Peter. The forgotten prisoners, The Observer (1961-05-28).
http://www.amnestyusa.org/about/observer.html
4
and to help prisoners in search of a refuge or employment abroad. Activity AI and its influence
strengthen in the intergovernmental organisations: till the end of 1960th years it has received the
status of the adviser at the United Nations, and also at the Council of Europe and UNESCO.
In 1970th years the organisation continued to protect prisoners of conscience and
simultaneously expanded a field of activity, to consider the problems of “justice of proceeding”,
especially questions of a non-admission of tortures concerning prisoners. AI has analysed the
information from the countries, where the messages on tortures arrived more often, and has spent
the international conference devoted to a problem of tortures. The organisation aspired to affect
public opinion and by that to put pressure upon the governments, having organised campaign
«For liquidation of tortures» which proceeded some years. Amnesrty International appealed to
the United of the peoples rights.
The quantity of members AI has grown from 15 000 persons in 1969 to 200 000 to 1979.2
Due to increase in resources the organisation has had an opportunity to wide the activity and
started to work on "disappearances", the death penalty and the rights of refugees. The
organisation has applied for the first time a new method of work — the action of the urgent help
aimed at operative mobilisation of its members. The first action has been published on March,
19th, 1973 in Luis Basilio Rossi's protection, the Brazilian scientist arrested on political grounds.
At intergovernmental level AI achieved application of the Minimum standard rules of the
reference with prisoners and operating humanitarian conventions, ratification of two pacts of the
United Nations under human rights (have come into force in 1976), and also has played a pivotal
role in acceptance of the Resolution of the United Nations № 3059 which has officially
condemned tortures and has urged the governments to adhere to operating international tools and
the positions forbidding similar practice. In 1972 the organisation has received the status of the
adviser at the Interamerican Commission of Human Rights.
In 80-th governments began more often criticize AI, which had already become the Nobel
prize winner of the world and had got awards of the United Nations in the field of human rights.
The USSR has accused the organisation of espionage3, the government of Morocco has
condemned her as the defender of the persons who are violating the law, and the Argentina
authorities have forbidden the Annual report-19834.
In 1980th years AI continued to defend the rights of prisoners of conscience and to struggle
with tortures. In the world there were new problems, including extrajudicial executions; transfers
of people military men, special services and police; political murders and "disappearances".
2
Site AI http//amnesty.org.ru
3
AI is accused of espionage http//amnesty.org.ru
Site AI http//amnesty.org.ru
4
5
By the end of decade the growing number of refugees in the world became rather important
theme. AI proved that instead of entering all new restrictions on the admission into the countries
of applicants of a refuge, the governments should concentrate on struggle against infringements
of human rights which compel people to leave the native land.
AI, in particular, paid attention to infringements of the rights of certain categories of
people, including refugees, representatives of racial, ethnic and religious minority, women, and
also executed and sentenced to the death penalty. The report devoted to a problem of the death
penalty «When the state kills» (When the state kills) and campaign «Human Rights Are
Women’s Rights» (Human rights — the rights of women) have played a key role in work on
these problems. Both the report, and campaign have proved that AI remains true to basic
principles of the activity, shining thorny questions and organizing campaigns.
At intergovernmental level AI supported creation of a post of the Supreme commissioner
of the United Nations under human rights (it is founded in 1993) and the International criminal
court (is founded in 2002).
After 2000 AI has included in the agenda challenges which were brought with by
globalisation and consequences of blows across the USA on September, 11th, 2001. The
globalisation problem has caused considerable changes in the organisation. The sphere of its
activity has extended and now covered the economic, social and cultural rights. After attacks on
September, 11th new Secretary general AI Ajrin Caen has informed that a certain high-ranking
official has declared to delegates of the organisation: «Your role has come to naught with wreck
of the New York towers-twins»5. AI insisted that human rights form a basis of safety of
everyone, instead of interfere with it. Bush's Presidential Administration and the newspaper
"Washington Post" have acted with criticism to the organisation when in 2005 Caen (Cuba) has
compared to the Soviet Gulag prison of the USA in Guantanamo6.
In first half of new decade in the field of attention AI have appeared violence concerning
women, the control over a weapon turn in the world and alarm concerning efficiency of the
United Nations. Members of the organisation which number by 2005 has reached two millions
continued to defend interests of prisoners of conscience.
Consideration of the origin of this organization give us an opportunity to understand the
importance of the problems which they try to decide. We can definitely say that the violence,
human rights abuses are the problems of not the local part of the community, but the main
problems of all humanity. There are the global problems. That is why this organization found the
5
AI Report 2002. — AI http://www.amnesty.org/en
6
American Gulag, The Washington Post (2005-05-26). http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2005/05/25/AR2005052501838.html
6
support of many people from the different countries. AI can attract the attention of the
governments of North and Sourth countries. Organisation developed the movement on the
international level as it has received the status of the adviser at the United Nations, and also at
the Council of Europe and UNESCO.
AI was criticized by many governments of the USA, USSR. AI accused in infringement of
rights the governments7, told about inefficiency of United Nation. And I think that the attempts
of these governments to argue with this imputation and cut the influence of this organization on
the peoples opinion give us a chance to suppose that this organization is really influential, as it
attracts the attention of the global actors, governments.
Ever since AI started campaigning in 1961, it worked around the globe to stop the abuse of
human rights. It now has more than 2.2 million members, supporters and subscribers in over 150
countries and territories, in every region of the world.
2. The structure of Amnesty International
AI is an organization based on worldwide voluntary membership and it consists of national
branches (sections and structures), international networks, affiliated groups and international
members.
Statutory authority for the conduct of the affairs of AI is vested in International Council
whose primary functions are:
- to focus on strategy;
- to set AI’s vision, mission and core values;
- to determine AI’s Integrated Strategic Plan including its financial strategy;
- to establish systems and bodies of governance and delegation for the movement,
to elect members to those bodies, and to hold those bodies and their members
accountable;
- to evaluate the movement’s performance against its agreed strategies and plans;
- to hold national sections, structures and other bodies accountable.8
7
Bush says Amnesty report 'absurd', BBC (2005-05-31).
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4598109.stm; «DR Congo blasts AI report on repression», The
Namibian, 14 January 2000. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
http://www.namibian.com.na/Netstories/2000/January/Africa/aggression.html; «Russian official blasts AI over
Chechnya refugees», Human Rights Violations in Chechnya, 22 August 2003. Retrieved 15 May 2006.
http://www.hrvc.net/news8-03/23b-8-03.html
8
english site http://www.amnesty.org/en
7
An International Executive Committee is elected by the International Council to provide
leadership and stewardship for the whole of AI worldwide. Its main functions are:
- to take international decisions;
- to ensure that there is sound financial policy and that the financial policy is
consistently implemented across the international organization;
- to ensure implementation of the Integrated Strategic Plan;
- to make any necessary adjustments to the Integrated Strategic Plan and other
decisions of the International Council;
- to ensure compliance with the Statute;
- to ensure human resources development;
- to hold national sections, structures and other bodies of AI accountable for their
functioning by presenting reports to the International Council;
- to perform the other functions conferred on it by the Statute.9
The International Executive Committee (IEC) consists of nine people, each of whom is a
member of AI. They are elected to office by the biennial International Council Meeting (ICM).
The IEC members’ four-year terms are staggered, with half the members up for re-election
at each ICM. Each member is eligible for re-election for a maximum of two consecutive terms.
The IEC may not include more than one member from any AI national body or more than one
member of AI from any country, state or territory in which no AI body exists10..
The day-to-day affairs of AI are conducted by the International Secretariat headed by a
Secretary General under the direction of the International Executive Committee.
Leadership of the International Secretariat (IS) is provided by a team headed by the
Secretary General
This Senior Leadership Team works closely with the directors and deputy directors of the
IS' programmes and together they provide strategic direction, operational management and direct
support to the IS' staff and volunteers. These staff and volunteers and those of AI's national
branches are the most important resources that AI has in its work to defend and promote human
rights globally.
Financial resources
The overwhelming majority of AI income comes from individuals the world over. These
personal and unaffiliated donations allow AI to maintain full independence from any and all
governments, political ideologies, economic interests or religions. This organization neither seek
9
english site http://www.amnesty.org/en
10
english site http://www.amnesty.org/en
8
nor accept any funds for human rights research from governments or political parties and it
accepts support only from businesses that have been carefully vetted. By way of ethical
fundraising leading to donations from individuals, AI is able to stand firm and unwavering in
defense of universal and indivisible human rights.
3. Main activities of Amnesty International
AI addresses governments, intergovernmental organizations, armed political groups,
companies and other non-state actors. AI seeks to expose human rights abuses accurately,
quickly and persistently.
3.1. Methods of researches and campaigning
AI systematically and impartially researches the facts of individual cases and patterns of
human rights abuses. These findings are publicized, and members, supporters and staff mobilize
public pressure on governments and others to stop the abuses. In addition to its work on specific
abuses of human rights, AI urges all governments and all relevant powers to observe the rule of
law, and to ratify and implement human rights standards; it carries out a wide range of human
rights educational activities; and it encourages intergovernmental organizations, individuals, and
all organs of society to support and respect human rights.
Among the many activities AI carry out:

send experts to talk with victims

observe trials

interview local officials

liaise with human rights activists

monitor global and local media

publish detailed reports

inform the news media

publicize our concerns in documents, leaflets, posters, advertisements, newsletters
and websites11
AI help stop human rights abuses by mobilizing the public to put pressure on governments,
armed political groups, companies and intergovernmental bodies via:
11

public demonstrations

vigils

letter-writing campaigns
english site http://www.amnesty.org/en
9

human rights education

awareness-raising concerts

direct lobbying

targeted appeals

email petitions and other online actions

partnerships with local campaigning groups

community activities

co-operation with student groups12
The research teams focusing on particular countries and themes investigate reports of
human rights abuses, cross checking and corroborating information from a wide variety of
sources and contacts. They receive information from many sources, including:

prisoners and others suffering other human rights abuses and their representatives

survivors of abuse and their families

lawyers and journalists

refugees

diplomats

religious bodies and community workers

humanitarian agencies and other human rights organizations

human rights defenders

They monitor newspapers, websites and other media outlets. AI often sends factfinding missions to assess the situation on the spot.
To evaluate the efficiency of AI activities let’s try to consider some projects of this organisation
3.2. Projects of Amnesty International
Demand Dignity
All over the world, people in poverty are demanding dignity. They want an end to the
injustice and exclusion that keep them trapped in deprivation. They want to have control over the
decisions that affect their lives. They want their rights to be respected and their voices to count.
To decide the problems on the global level AI to work out the Optional Protocol to the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Optional Protocol). The
Optional Protocol establishes an international mechanism for individuals whose economic, social
and cultural rights are violated and who are denied a domestic remedy to seek justice at the
12
english site http://www.amnesty.org/en
10
international level. AI, in partnership with the NGO Coalition for an Optional Protocol, is calling
on all UN member states to ensure that access to justice and the right to an effective remedy
become a reality for all victims of human rights violations. In particular, they are asking all
States to take the necessary steps to become a party to the Optional Protocol when it opens for
signature on September 24, 2009; to ensure that it enters into force as soon as possible; and to
fully implement the Optional Protocol without delay. In October 2009 twenty states began
signing an international agreement to address violations of economic, social and cultural rights at
the United Nations13. I think it is a good example of the relultative cmapaign of AI on the
international level.
In order to resolve problems of right abuses within the countries AI interacts with
individuals and local communities, which live in poverty, for example AI publicizes interview
with this people, make a report based on this information and by this call to the governments to
decide the problems of the poorest people of their countries.
Abolish the Death Penalty
Thousands of people around the world are waiting for governments to kill them. AI is
campaigning to end these killings. Join our global campaign to end all executions - a global
abolition of the death penalty.
For example in Russia the Court decided to extend the current moratorium on executions,
which was due to expire in January, and recommended abolishing the death penalty completely.
AI has now called on the Russian authorities to remove the death penalty from law and ratify
Protocol 6 to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms14.
Counter Terror with Justice
The so-called “war on terror” has led to an erosion of a whole host of human rights. States
are resorting to practices which have long been prohibited by international law, and have sought
to justify them in the name of national security. The main campaign is against using the violence
in attitude to the prisoners in different countries especialy in the USA, Spain, Iraq
Control Arms
The unregulated global arms trade inflicts misery worldwide. Every year thousands of
people are killed, injured, raped and forced to flee their homes as a result. AI together with
13
english site http://www.amnesty.org/en
14
Governments sign up to defend economic, social and cultural rights http://www.amnesty.org/en
11
«Oxfam» and the International network to struggle against small arms distribution (IANSA)
conduct campaign «the Weapon under the control!». The campaign purpose – acceptance of the
international Contract on traffic in arms which will help to rescue thousand lives and to make
answerable irresponsible dealers the weapon. From the date of campaign start in October, 2003 it
have supported more than one million persons in various corners of the world. Within the
campaign actions in more than 50 countries, called to remind the authorities about «steadfast
attention of all world» were organized.
For making the campaigns more efficient AI cooperate with different NGO’s. As we can
know from the news AI work with the Memorial15 in Russia, AI use the researches of this
organization to evaluate the situation with justice as in Russia as in countries of CIS for example
in the countries of Caucasus. AI also collaborate with such organizations as Oxfam and Human
Rights Watch16.
3.3. Amnesty International and United Nation
The most projects are successful due to work in close relations with the United Nation.
AI aims to provide to each person in the world possibility to have with all rights
proclaimed in the United Declaration of human rights.
On a way to this purpose AI for many years of work in the United Nations has brought the
contribution to many important achievements to business of protection of human rights,
including:
• Acceptance of the Convention of the United Nations against tortures;
• Establishment of a post of the Supreme commissioner under human rights;
• Creation of Council about human rights.
AI co-operates with various bodies in United Nations system, helping them to solve
remedial problems, including with:
• Council about human rights
• General Assembly
• Security council
• Contractual bodies
• Special procedures
• Secretary
15
http://www.controlarms.org/en/games/catch-bombs
Правозащитники ждут реакции Медведева на ежегодный доклад AI
http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/137059
16
12
AI regularly conducts campaigns for the separate countries and problems and will organize
lobbying in the governments, in capitals and in constant missions in Geneva, New York and
Bruxelles to achieve inclusion of remedial questions in the agenda of the basic bodies of the
United Nations, for example, General Assembly, Security council, Council about human rights
and also to provide the effective decision of the most essential remedial problems. AI regularly
prepares the information and inquiries on those or other countries and questions, for example, for
special procedures, contractual bodies and for Council about human rights.
AI struggles for general ratification and effective application of the international
agreements and norms in the field of human rights, and also for acceptance of new documents.
AI also actively lobbies United Nations reforms to achieve strengthening of positions and
increase of efficiency of the United Nations in questions of encouragement and protection of
human rights, in particular, supporting reform of contractual bodies and special procedures,
institutional development of Council about human rights, and also strengthening of body of the
United Nations by the rights of women.
Main activities of AI in the United Nations are carried out by members of the organisation
in more than 35 countries of the world, and also representatives AI in the United Nations in New
York and Geneva17.
According to the main activities of the AI we can say that this organization realize its
projects on the international, global level. AI through the international organization like UN try
to provide the common law for every country in the sphere of the human rights, it call for the
governments of the countries to ratify the treaties which can prevent the violence, human rights
abuses and resolve such problems as poverty, environmental pollution and others.
17
english site http://www.amnesty.org/en
13
Conclusion
Analyzing the origin of the AI, its structure, financial resources and the main activity we
can make a conclusion if the AI is a global actor or not. Let’s try to define the criteria that it is a
global actor.
Firstly, AI try to cope with the global problems, which relate to any country as from the
South as from the North. I think there is no country where the human rights are observed to the
full extent. As we now the most democratic country USA is continuously criticized by the
experts for their rule of law, which has a negative influence on the countries of the third world,
where USA try to spread its rules. AI for example campaign against the violence in prisons and
the death penalty in the USA. Of course it is very quarrel question, but if to consider it in the
context of human rights it may be really unfair towards some persons. It is important that in
these sphere AI has success experience.
Secondly, the AI has a very developed structure with offices in more than 80 countries.
This organization works on the local and international level, which make its activity more
efficient on the global level. On the local level they organize people, they communicate with
them on the themes of human right abuses. They try to make it clear for each state that these
problems should be resolved for the national prosperity and well-being. Through the cooperation
with international organization like United Nation AI try to work out the legal framework in the
shape of treaties, conventions, ratifications which could be adopted by countries and would be
the guarantee of the human rights protecting. In some cases they reach goals, as we can see on
concrete examples.
AI cooperates with other global organizations such as United Nation and NGOs (Oxfam,
Human Rights Watch).
It is important to know that this organization is financially independent from any huge and
influential political or economic actor. It takes care of their authority. As they proclaim AI
strives to create, develop and improve systems and methodologies that enable it to measure and
assess impartially the nature of its impact. This approach has many dimensions:
from a focus on our accountability to the individual victims, survivors and human rights
defenders with whom and on whose behalf we work, to a focus on the needs and interests of our
members, supporters and donors
from investment in forward planning, the routines of monitoring, reporting and
independent audit to systematic evaluation of key processes, systems and project
from the giving of attention to the needs and concerns of our staff to the meeting of the
requirements of good governance
14
According all these facts we can say that AI is the global actor, influencing the political
global processes and resolving global problems.
Literature:
1. russian site of AI http://amnesty.org.ru
2. english site of AI http://www.amnesty.org/en
3. Don Habibi (July 2, 2004)."What's Wrong With Human Rights" (Word document).
http://people.uncw.edu/turrisip/par292/Sept04JHR%20draft.doc
4. Benenson, Peter. The forgotten prisoners, The Observer (1961-05-28).
http://www.amnestyusa.org/about/observer.html
5. Buchanan, T. (2002) 'The Truth Will Set You Free': The Making of AI. Journal of
Contemporary History 37(4)
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022- 0094%28200210%2937%3A4%
6. 'American Gulag', The Washington Post (2005-05-26).
http://www.amnesty.org/russia/pdfs/justice-report-eng.pdf
7.
Bush says Amnesty report 'absurd', BBC (2005-05-31).
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4598109.stm
8. «DR Congo blasts AI report on repression», The Namibian, 14 January 2000. Retrieved 15
May 2006.
http://www.namibian.com.na/Netstories/2000/January/Africa/aggression.html
9. The U.S. and China This Week, U.S.-China Policy Foundation, 16 February 2001.
Retrieved 15 May 2006. http://www.uscpf.org/news/2001/02/021601.htm
10. «The Cream of The Diplomatic Crop from Ha Noi.», THIEN LY B?U TOA. Retrieved
15 May 2006. http://www.thienlybuutoa.org/Misc/cream_of_the_diplomatic_crop.htm
11. «Russian official blasts AI over Chechnya refugees», Human Rights Violations in
Chechnya, 22 August 2003. Retrieved 15 May 2006. http://www.hrvc.net/news8-03/23b-803.html
12. Press Briefing By Scott McClellan, The White House, 25 May 2005. Retrieved 30 May
2006. http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/05/200505253.html#l
13. "Водный отчет" AI и не совпадающая с ним реальность. Репортаж RTVi,
27.10.2009 http://txt.newsru.co.il/mideast/27oct2009/rovera456.html
15