Globale Produktionsnetzwerke und „Prekäres
Upgrading“ in der Elektronikindustrie in
Mittel- und Osteuropa (MOE)
Die Beispiele Ungarn und Rumänien
Leonhard Plank/Cornelia Staritz
RV Globale Güterketten, Universität Wien, SS2010
Überblick
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II.
III.
IV.
V.
Forschungsansatz
Globale Elektronikindustrie
MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie
Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien
Fazit
I. Forschungsansatz
• Ketten-/Netzwerk-Ansätze
– Global Commodity Chains (Gereffi/Koreniewicz 1994); Global
Value Chains (Gereffi/Humphrey/Sturgeon 2001); Global
Production Networks (Henderson/Dicken/Hess/Coe 2002)
• Gewählter Zugang: Adaptierter GPN-Ansatz
– Berücksichtigung von Nicht-Firmen Akteuren sowie regulativen
und institutionellen Kontexten
– Breitere Konzeption von Industrial Upgrading
– Berücksichtigung von ArbeiterInnen & Social Upgrading
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II.
III.
IV.
V.
Forschungsansatz
Globale Elektronikindustrie
MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie
Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien
Fazit
II. Globale Elektronikindustrie
• Elektronik-Industrie
– Hardware/Software/Services
– Hardware-Produkte: iPod, Laptop, Handys, LCD-TV
• Globaler Handel
– Rapider Anstieg seit den 1980ern; Dynamischster Sektor im
globalen Handel
• Produktionsprozess
– ...in organisatorisch fragmentierten und geographisch breit
gestreuten GPNs
• Zunehmende Integration von Entwicklungs-/
Transformationsländern in GPNs
Modularisierung der Value Chain
Vertikal Integrierte
Computer-Industrie (ca. 1980)
Vertikal Spezialisierte ComputerIndustrie (ca. 1995)
Main market segments
1) Computers
Product examples
Enterprise computing systems, personal
computers (desktop, notebook, netbook),
embedded computers, etc.
Lead firm examples
IBM, Fujitsu, Siemens, Hewlett Packard, Dell,
Apple, Acer, Lenovo, etc.
2) Computer peripherals &
other office equipment
Printers, fax machines, copiers, scanners,
etc.
Hewlett Packard, Xerox, Epson, Kodak, Cannon,
Lexmark, Acer, Fujitsu, Sharp, etc.
3) Consumer electronics
Game consoles, television, home audio &
video, portable audio & video, mobile
phone handets, musical equipment, toys,
etc.
Toshiba, NEC, Vizio, Sony, Sharp Apple,
Nintendo, Microsoft, Samsung, LG, NEC,
Matsushita, Hitachi, Microsoft, HTC, Philips, etc.
4) Server & storage devices
Portable, internal, external, backup
systems, storage services, etc.
Toshiba, Western Digital, EMC, NetApp, Hewlett
Packard, Hitachi, Seagate, Maxtor, LeCie,
Quantum, etc.
5) Networking
Public telecommunications, private
communications networks, Internet, mobile
phone infrastructure, etc.
Alcatel, Nortel, Cisco, Motorola, Juniper, Huawei,
Ericsson, Nokia, Tellabs, etc.
6) Automotive electronics
Entertainment, communication, vehicle
control (braking, acceleration, traction,
suspension), navigation, etc.
TomTom, Garmin, Clarion, Toyota, General
Motors, Renault, Bosch, Siemens, etc.
7) Medical electronics
Consumer medical, diagnostics & testing,
imaging, telemedicine, meters &
monitoring, implants, fitness, etc.
General Electric, Philips, Medtronic, Varian, etc.
8) Industrial electronics
Security & surveillance, factory automation,
building automation, military systems,
aircraft, aerospace, banking & ATM,
transportation, etc.
Diebold, Siemens, Rockwell, Philips, Omron,
Dover, etc.
9) Military & aerospace
electronics
Ground combat systems, aircraft, seabased systems, eavesdropping and
surveillance, satellites, missile guidance &
intercept, etc.
L-3 Communications, Lockheed Martin, Boeing,
BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman, General
Dynamics, EADS, L-3 Communications,
Finmeccanica, United Technologies, etc.
Source: Sturgeon/Kawakami (2010) Global Value Chains in the Electronics Industry. In: Cattaneo, O./Gereffi, G./Staritz, C.
(eds.): Global Value Chains in a Post-Crisis World. A Development Perspective. Washington: World Bank.
Akteure in der Unternehmenssphäre
• Lead firms bzw. Original Brand Manufacturer (OBM)
• Kontraktfertiger
– Original Design Manufacturer (ODM)
– Contract Electronics Manufacturer (CEM) bzw. Electronics
Manufacturing Services firms (EMS)
• Zulieferer
Source: ILO (2007) The production of electronic components for the IT industries: Changing labour force requirements
in a global economy. Geneva: ILO.
Top Kontraktfertiger
Top 5 Taiwan-based CMs
Foxconn/Hon Hai
Quanta Computer
Compal Electronics
Wistron
Inventec
Top 5 North America-based CMs
Flextronics (USA & Singapore)
Jabil Circuit (USA)
Celestica (Canada)
Sanmina-SCI (USA)
Benchmark Electronics (USA)
Top 5 CMs in other locations
Venture (Singapore)
Elcoteq (Luxembourg)
SIIX (Japan)
Beyonics (Singapore)
Zollner Elektronik (Germany)
Primary service
EMS
ODM
ODM
ODM
ODM
2009 Revenue (US$ Millions)
44,065
23,265
19,424
16,226
12,349
EMS
EMS
EMS
EMS
EMS
30,949
11,685
6,092
5,177
2,089
EMS
EMS
EMS
EMS
EMS
2.428
2,090
1,360
1,120
970
Source: Sturgeon/Kawakami (2010) Global Value Chains in the Electronics Industry. In: Cattaneo,
O./Gereffi, G./Staritz, C. (eds.): Global Value Chains in a Post-Crisis World. A Development
Perspective. Washington: World Bank.
Institutionelle und Regulative Kontexte
• FDI-Politik
– Export-Zonen & ähnliche Instrumente: Industrial Free Trade
Zones in Ungarn
– Steuervergünstigungen & andere Incentives
– Special Deals: Dell in Lodz (PL), Nokia in Cluj (RO)
• Handelsliberalisierung
– Abschluss des Information Technology Agreement im Rahmen
der WTO (Singapur, 1996)
• Aktuelles Streitfall: US/Japan/Taiwan vs. EU (6-14% Zölle auf
Multifunktionsdrucker, TV Set-Top Boxen, LCD)
– Regionale Handelsabkommen
INCENTIVES PROPOSED DURING EU PRE-ACCESSION PERIOD BY CENTRAL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
COUNTRIES
Incentives
Hungary
Poland
Czech Rep
Slovakia
10 years corporate tax
10 first years Full
10 years Full corporate
10 years corporate Tax
exemption
corporate tax exemption
tax exemption
exemption
Subsidies Economic
Subsidies for training:
Subsidies for training:
develop.
negotiable
50 % of the cost
Subsidies for Job
Subsidies for job
Subsidies for job
Subsidies for job
creation:
creation:
creation:
creation:
max. USD 350.000
negotiable
USD 4750 per job
USD 3200 per job
Imported raw materials
Duty and VAT suspension
Duty and VAT suspension
Duty and VAT suspension
Duty and VAT suspension
and components
Max duration for reexport
Max duration for reexport
Max duration for reexport
Max duration for reexport
2 years
2 years
2 years
2 years
Equipment
Duty free and VAT free import
of new machinery equipment
Duty free and VAT free import
of new machinery equipment
Duty free and VAT free import
of new machinery equipment
Duty free and VAT free import
of new machinery equipment
Industrial Parks/
yes on request
Yes on request
Yes on request
yes on request
yes
yes
yes
yes
5 years local tax
exemption
customs free zones
Customs office on site
Source: Jabil Electronics, Electronics Manufacturing Investment in Ukraine, Presentation, 7. Juli 2005, Kiew, Ukraine
Geographie der Globalen Elektronikindustrie
• Global-Regionale Arbeitsteilung
– Globale Zulieferer: Asien (China)
– Regionale Zulieferer: Mexiko, Mittel- und Osteuropa
Component
North America
Asia
specs.
Lead firms
Finished products
Component and
equipment suppliers
(design, marketing, and sales)
Contract mfg.
(purchasing, circuit
board and final
assy.)
Contract manufacturer (global
headquarters, purchasing,
circuit board and final assy.)
Mexico
Contract manufacturer
(circuit board and final assembly)
Orders, designs, bill
of materials
Components,
equipment
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Forschungsansatz
Globale Elektronikindustrie
MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie
Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien
Fazit
Total Imports
(SITC 75, 76,
776), in US$
1995
2000
2003
2005
2007
103.208.508.550
159.632.772.432
161.264.972.494
224.326.015.439
270.156.983.440
1
USA
30,28%
USA
25,09%
China
19,11%
China
27,73%
China
32,98%
2
Japan
22,53%
Japan
15,82%
USA
16,59%
USA
12,48%
USA
11,92%
3
Singapore
8,77%
China
8,55%
Japan
13,02%
Japan
10,46%
Japan
8,83%
4
Other Asia, nes
7,00%
Other Asia, nes
8,23%
Other Asia, nes
7,84%
Rep. of Korea
7,73%
Rep. of Korea
6,85%
5
Malaysia
5,35%
Singapore
6,65%
Rep. of Korea
6,39%
Other Asia, nes
5,88%
Other Asia, nes
5,15%
6
Rep. of Korea
4,55%
Rep. of Korea
6,34%
Singapore
6,26%
Malaysia
5,05%
Malaysia
4,87%
7
China
4,35%
Malaysia
5,52%
Malaysia
6,04%
Singapore
5,00%
Hungary
4,35%
8
Special Cat.
2,49%
Special Cat.
3,49%
Hungary
4,03%
Hungary
4,89%
Czech Rep.
3,75%
9
Hong Kong
2,41%
Hungary
3,14%
Philippines
2,92%
Czech Rep.
2,65%
Singapore
3,45%
10
Thailand
2,02%
Philippines
2,55%
Czech Rep.
2,29%
Philippines
2,51%
Slovakia
2,30%
11
Canada
1,38%
Thailand
2,13%
Thailand
2,14%
Hong Kong
2,03%
Thailand
2,20%
12
Switzerland
1,24%
Hong Kong
2,10%
Hong Kong
1,98%
Thailand
2,01%
Philippines
1,83%
13
Europe EU, nes
0,93%
Canada
1,80%
Poland
1,15%
Turkey
1,29%
Poland
1,52%
14
Philippines
0,90%
Switzerland
1,02%
Turkey
1,04%
Costa Rica
1,16%
Hong Kong
1,39%
15
Areas, nes
0,65%
Israel
0,99%
Indonesia
0,97%
UAE
1,04%
Turkey
0,89%
16
Malta
0,64%
Indonesia
0,82%
Costa Rica
0,97%
Poland
0,93%
Costa Rica
0,88%
17
Norway
0,57%
Mexico
0,69%
Canada
0,93%
Switzerland
0,90%
Special Cat.
0,79%
18
Hungary
0,57%
Estonia
0,69%
Switzerland
0,87%
Slovakia
0,89%
Canada
0,79%
19
Israel
0,56%
Poland
0,56%
Mexico
0,86%
Canada
0,80%
Switzerland
0,74%
20
Indonesia
0,39%
Costa Rica
0,55%
Special Cat.
0,61%
Indonesia
0,78%
Mexico
0,73%
1,20%
5,33%
8,74%
9,97%
Source: UN Comtrade Database, Electronics Imports into EU-15 from the World.
10,53%
Elektronik-Produktion in MOE
Source: Yearbook of World Electronics Data 2009/2010, Reed Electronics Research
MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie
• Assembly-Plattform für EU-15
– Beispiel Ungarn: Handelsbilanzdefizit-/überschuss bei
Komponenten/Endprodukten  „High-Tech“-Exports???
• Dominiert durch ausländische TNCs - 2 Phasen seit
1990ern
– Expansion
• Lead firms/OBMs (ab Anfang der 1990er)
• Contract Manufacturers (ab Mitte 1990er)
– Restrukturierung und verschärfter Verlagerungsdruck (ab 2001)
Dominanz ausländischer TNCs: Ungarn
Source: Sass, Magdolna (2005) The ICT manufacturing sector in Hungary. Budapest: Institute of
Economics of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
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Forschungsansatz
Globale Elektronikindustrie
MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie
Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien
Fazit
Elektroniksektor in Ungarn und Rumänien
• Exporte
– Ungarn: Top Exporter in EU-15; Rumänien: Newcomer
– Export-Fokus auf EU-Markt
• Elektronik-Produktion
– Ungarn: ca. 27% der Fertigungs-Industrie in HU (2007)
– Rumänien: ca. 6% der Fertigungs-Industrie in RO (2007)
• Beschäftigungszahlen
– Ungarn: ca. 70.000 Personen (2007)
– Rumänien: ca. 28.000 Personen (2007)
Industrial und Social Upgrading
• Industrial Upgrading
– Typologie von Humphrey/Schmitz (2002)
• a) Process (b) Product (c) Functional (d) Inter-Chain Upgrading
– Embeddedness bzw. Effekte auf lokale Ökonomie
• Internal vs. External Upgrading
• Social Upgrading
– ICFTU „Basic Code of Labour Practice“
• 8 Arbeitsstandards (inklusive 4 ILO Kernarbeitsnormen)
ICFTU ‘Basic Code of Labour Practice’
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
no forced or bonded labour
no discrimination in employment
no child labour
freedom of association and the right to collective
bargaining
right to a living wage
no excessive working time
occupational health and safety measures
right to the establishment of an employment
relationship.
Industrial Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien
• Internal Industrial Upgrading
– Modernisierung des Sektors (Process, Product and Functional
Upgrading)
• External Industrial Upgrading
– Lokale Verflechtungen (linkages)
• Fehlende backward linkages
• Erklärung: „absorptive capacity“ vs. etablierte Zulieferstruktur
(approved vendor list).
– Spill-Overs & potentielle Channels
• Human-Kapital (skilled vs. un/semi-skilled)
• Demonstrations-Effekte
• Backward/Forward Linkages
Social Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien
• Polarisierung der Beschäftigten
– Indirekte: Management, techn. Angestellte
– Direkte: ArbeiterInnen an Fertigungsstraßen
• Arbeitsstandards
–
–
–
–
Löhne
Arbeitszeiten
Flexible Beschäftigungsformen
Gewerkschaftsrechte
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Forschungsansatz
Globale Elektronikindustrie
MOE in der Globalen Elektronikindustrie
Upgrading in Ungarn und Rumänien
Fazit
Fazit
• Internal Industrial Upgrading, aber beschränktes
external Industrial Upgrading
• Beschränktes Social Upgrading
…im Kontext der besonderen Rolle von ArbeiterInnen im Sektor
(„McDonalds“-Approach)
• Oberflächliche Integration setzt Standorte und
ArbeiterInnen Verlagerungsdruck bzw.
Standortstrategien von OBMs/CMs aus
„Prekäres“ Upgrading
Danke
Elektronik GPN
A McDonald´s Approach (Lüthje 2002)
• ‘Work without a product’
– As CEM-plants do not manufacture their ‘own’ products, quality management and workplace
control has to be refocused on customer orientation and manufacturing has to be organized as
‘service work’.
• Relatively low wages with high variable proportions
– As most CEM-plants are located in low-cost areas, manufacturing wages and benefits are
rather modest, and bonus-oriented pay-systems (including stock ownership and options) have
to ensure customer orientation.
• Labour flexibility
– The constant and very rapid change in production volumes is managed by an extensive use of
various kinds of flexible employment.
• Quality management based on restricted teamwork
– In most plants there is an ideology of ‘team orientation’, but no formal structure of work
groups etc., as known from team concepts in other industries.
• Heavy reliance on women and minority workers
– As in most areas of electronics manufacturing, the majority of the manufacturing workforce is
female. In the U.S., in particular in California, the workforce is mainly recruited from ethnic
minorities in disadvantaged labour market positions.