King’s College London Pre-Sessional Programme
The Language of Argument and Counter-Argument
In argumentation, it is not enough just to state points on both sides of the issue
(advantages/disadvantages; for/against; pros/cons etc); you also need to make it clear to
the reader whether the points you are making are your opinion or not. That is to say, you
need to make your attitude towards that information clear. You should make this
position clear in your thesis statement/introduction, and maintain it throughout your
essay.
If you do not make your attitude towards the information you are discussing clear, it is
possible for the reader to read half your work and still not be certain about which side of
the argument you support. You may be used to writing about the advantages of an issue,
and then about the disadvantages, and then claiming, for example, ‘As can be seen, the
advantages outweigh the disadvantages’ in your conclusion. Unless you have actually
demonstrated this to be true in the body of your essay, however, it is NOT logical to
conclude this, and it is unlikely that the reader will be persuaded. Therefore, the skilful
use of the language of argument and counter-argument can help to make your opinion
clear to the reader and guide them through your writing.
Note: arguments refer to your opinion/the side you agree with; counter-arguments are
what you do not agree with. In academic writing, in order to have a more detailed
discussion and to provide a more ‘considered’/sophisticated answer, it is necessary to
consider other points of view i.e. you must include (and deal with) counter-arguments [...
counter-arguments are the opposite point of view to your opinion]
Counter-Argument
When you write an academic essay, you make an argument: you propose a thesis and
offer some reasoning, using evidence that suggests why the thesis is true.
When you counter-argue, you consider a possible argument against your thesis or some
aspect of your reasoning. This is a good way to test your ideas when drafting (when you
still have time to revise them) and in the finished essay it can be a persuasive tactic: it
allows you to anticipate doubts and pre-empt objections that a sceptical reader might
have; it presents you as the kind of person who weighs up alternatives before arguing for
one and who analyses issues in order to discover the truth.
Not every objection is worth considering, and you should not include an objection just to
include one; but some imagining of other views, or of resistance to your own ideas, occurs
in most good essays. It shows that you do not simply believe everything you read, but that
you have the ability to be critical and to evaluate what you have read.
(Harvey, G (1999) (adapted from The Academic Essay: A Brief Anatomy), for the Writing Center at Harvard University)
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TRUE OR FALSE?
Imagine you are writing an essay on: “To what extent does studying English abroad
improve career prospects?” True or False?
1. Only write about the pros and cons.
2. It is OK if you only make your position clear in the thesis statement (introduction)
and conclusion.
3. You need to persuade the reader of something.
4. If you disagree with something you read while researching, it will be your counterargument.
5. If you agree with a counter-argument, it means you might have to change your
thesis statement and essay plan.
6. It will make your essay stronger if you ignore a very strong counter argument that
completely contradicts your theory.
7. You should question everything you read (i.e. read everything with a critical mind)
TASK 1
Consider the following question. ‘Continuous assessment is a fairer way to judge a
student’s abilities than exams.’ Discuss.

Identify the topic, the focus and the instruction word.

In groups, brainstorm which arguments you could use for and against using
continuous assessment rather than exams (remember you need to link your ideas to
the concept of ‘fairness’)
FOR (Argument)
Continuous Assessment
AGAINST (Counter-argument)
Continuous Assessment
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As mentioned above, it is necessary in an argument type essay to consider both sides of
the issue to show that you have considered the subject in some depth. You do this by
acknowledging there is support for the counter-arguments and by showing that support
for your arguments is stronger, and in your view, more valid. This is called refuting the
counter-argument.
You can refute counter-arguments by:



showing the counter-argument is untrue/ incorrect;
showing the counter-argument is irrelevant;
showing the counter-argument might be true (concession) but is not as strong as
your argument (perhaps because it is problematic is some way). This may lead you
to revise/adjust your position in some way, thus strengthening it.
Look at the following paragraph from a student’s essay. Decide which is the argument and which is
the counter-argument.
The conventional exam, some might argue, is the great leveller. It gives learners the
opportunity to show what they have learned and retained during the course and, under
the same conditions to demonstrate key knowledge and skills. However, it is clear that
critical assessment not only builds these factors into a course, but is also a robust
diagnostic tool facilitating students’ understanding in areas they might have difficulty
with. Critical assessment allows them to concentrate their efforts and allows the teacher to
monitor the impact their teaching has on students’ understanding. With this, teachers are
able to modify their activities for students not performing at grade level and also for those
who are or beyond that. In sum, critical assessment provides a cycle of self-assessment
both for student and teacher.
Now make a note of:
i. the language used to introduce the argument / counter-argument;
ii. how the writer has refuted the counter-argument.
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Criticism with the above example: Using Sources to Structure Argument and Counter-argument
It is also necessary to provide support for the arguments (and counter-arguments) in the form of
quotes/facts/statistics/examples wherever possible to avoid discussing the issues at a very general
level with no real evidence.
TASK 2: Argument or counter-argument phrase?
The language of argument is usually stronger as you wish to persuade your reader of your
views, while the language of counter-argument is usually weaker so that you ‘distance’
yourself from those opinions that you do not agree with. Remember too that you may
concede that there is some truth in the counter-argument before disagreeing with it.
Look at the following phrases and decide whether they are more likely to be argument or
counter-argument exponents:
1. Admittedly, there is some truth in the idea…
2. Although / In spite of the fact that…
3. There is, undoubtedly, some truth in the idea that…
4. It appears that ... It seems that ... (more tentative)
5. It can be argued that…
6. It could be argued that…
7. There can be no doubt that
8. The view that…seems questionable
9. There is significant / considerable / strong evidence to suggest that…
10. It has often been claimed / suggested that ...
11. Jones (2009) claims that…
12. It has often been observed that / suggested that ...
13. It is clear that ...
14. It is evident that..
15. It may be suggested that…
16. It might be argued that…
17. One might argue that…
18. Honein (2005) puts forward a strong case / makes a valid point / provides clear
evidence that.., when she says that…
19. There is, perhaps, some evidence that…
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Now check your answers:
1. Argument (your opinion)
It is clear that ... It is evident that
It appears that ... It seems that ... (more tentative)
It can be argued that…
It has often been observed that / suggested that ... (using a generally-held view to support your
argument)
There can be no doubt that
There is significant / considerable / strong evidence to suggest that…
Honein (2005) puts forward a strong case / makes a valid point / provides clear evidence that..,
when she says that…
2. Counter-argument (what you do not agree with)
(‘distance’ yourself from those arguments by making the language weaker)
It might be argued that…
It may be suggested that…
One might argue that…
It could be argued that…
It has often been claimed / suggested that ... // Jones (2005) claims that
These last 4 concede that there is some support for the CA:
There is, perhaps, some evidence that…
There is, undoubtedly, some truth in the idea that…
Admittedly, there is…
Although / In spite of the fact that ... -
Making Clear the Links between Arguments and Counter-arguments
It is important that you signal the move from the argument to the counter-argument so
that your reader can follow the development of your argument and line of reasoning.
Look at the examples below:
CA
It might be argued that ...
A
However/Nevertheless, it is clear
that...
It is often believed that ...
Yet/On the other hand there is,
actually some evidence that…
Although/In spite of the fact that ...,
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TASK 3
What is the writer’s position in the following example, on the topic of prisons?
It is claimed that prisons are needed to isolate dangerous criminals from society, but while
this may be true in some cases, more commonly prisons act as ‘universities of crime’,
which reinforce criminal behaviour.
Now match the following arguments and possible counter-arguments together:
i. most prisoners reoffend after leaving
ii. they provide punishment for wrong-doing
iii. prisons are expensive
iv. prisons act as a deterrent to criminal activity
Study the example below, and write sentences linking the counter-argument to your
argument.
Counter-argument
It is claimed that prisons are needed to
isolate dangerous criminals from society
Your Position
but while this may be true in some cases,
more commonly prisons act as ‘universities
of crime’, which reinforce criminal
behaviour.
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Introducing counter-argument
You could start with the counter-argument, refute it and the evidence you have presented,
and move on to your argument (as above).
An alternative is to begin with your argument (supported with sources), consider a
counter-argument, and by refuting it, return to your own position (argument).

You can introduce counter arguments with a phrase such as One might object here
that... or It might seem that... or It is true that... or Admittedly,... or Of course,... or It
might be argued that…,. Then you state the case against your position as briefly but
as clearly as you can, pointing to evidence where possible. (An obviously
unsupported or unthoughtful counter-argument does more harm than good.)

You MUST then return to your own argument – which you announce with a linking
word such as but, yet, however, nevertheless or still – and this return must likewise
involve careful reasoning, not a flippant (superficial) dismissal. In reasoning about
the proposed counter-argument, you may
1. refute it, showing why it is mistaken, i.e. an apparent but not real
problem;
2. acknowledge its validity or plausibility, but suggest why on balance
it's relatively less important or less likely than what you propose, and
thus doesn't overturn it;
3. concede its force and complicate your idea accordingly--restate your
thesis in a more exact, qualified way that takes account of the
objection, or start a new section in which you consider your topic in
light of it. This will work if the counter-argument concerns only an
aspect of your argument; if it undermines your whole case, you need
a new thesis.
It is important that your conclusions follow from an assessment of the evidence. You
must show that you have studied the relevant sources.
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THE OVERALL PLAN: USING ARGUMENT AND COUNTER-ARGUMENT
Once you have analysed, identified key words and interpreted the title of your essay, you
need to start planning your writing by organising your ideas. A good academic essay
should be clearly organised and have a ‘structure’. That is, the main body has a number of
identifiable parts. The way it is structured depends very much on the type of essay being
written. If it is an argument-type essay, it is necessary to consider a number of arguments
and counter-arguments to lend objectivity to your answer and to persuade the reader to
accept your point of view.
There are many possible ways of organising your answer. Below are just two possibilities:
A
B
Introduction
Introduction
Counter-arguments and refutation
Counter-argument 1 + argument 1 to
refute it
Argument 1
Counter-argument 2 + argument 2 to
refute it
Argument 2
Counter-argument 3 + argument to
refute it etc
Argument 3 etc
Conclusion
Conclusion
Which structure do you prefer/think might be more effective for your purposes?
Also make sure you:
 Organise your arguments in order of importance and strength. The strength of
your argument will depend to some extent on the amount of supporting material
you have.
 Consider the counter-arguments for the arguments you have raised. If you do not
do this, the reader may think that you have not examined the question in enough
depth or that you are afraid of the counter-arguments.
 Support your arguments and counter-arguments with the use of source material.
Much academic writing involves the reporting of different views by different
writers. It is also important to identify which views are the author’s own, and
his/her relationship to the other views reported.
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TASK 4
Look at the following essay title1:
In the pursuit of even higher standards of living, the human race is in danger of
destroying what has already been achieved by its consumerist lifestyle and selfish
behaviour. The best way of persuading people to change their lifestyles is through
financial incentives or disincentives. To what extent do you agree with this approach?



How would you define lifestyle?
In what ways might people need to change their lifestyles?
What financial incentives/disincentives can you think of?
Now read the introduction and first paragraph of the essay:
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Adapted from: de Chazal, E. and McCarter, S. Oxford EAP. Oxford: OUP.
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1. Identify the writer’s thesis statement and underline it.
2. Is the writer arguing for or against financial incentives?
3. Does the thesis statement present the writer’s stance regarding the overall
argument clearly and effectively? Give evidence.
4. What approaches does the writer discuss in the first paragraph?
5. Identify and paraphrase the evidence and explanation for each approach.
Evaluate the essay using the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Does the writer state their main argument and summarize the different ideas well?
Is the topic of paragraph 1 clear?
How clear are the supporting arguments in paragraph 1? Give evidence.
Find examples of the writer’s reasoning / analysis of his sources.
How is the main argument linked with the thesis statement?
Do you agree with the writer’s main argument? Are you persuaded by the
argument? Give reasons (you might want to consider how well the writer refutes
the counter-argument, as well as his use of language).
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