The effect of online gaming, cognition and feedback
type in facilitating delayed achievement of different
learning objectives.
指導教授：陳明溥 博士
研 究 生：周韻芳
Cameron, B. & Dwyer, F. (2005).The effect of online gaming, cognition and feedback
type in facilitating delayed achievement of different learning objectives. Journal of
Interactive Learning Research, 16(3), 243-257.
LITERATURE REVIEW-Gaming(1)
• Gaming motivates learners.
• Motivation generated in competitive gaming may
translate into increased achievement of the content. (L
aveault&St.Germain,1997)
• Feedback guides the learning process and provides
students with a sense of satisfaction and/or accomplis
hment.
• Offer a simple and creative means of providing
high-level motivation, clear and consistent goals,
and sustained interactivity.
LITERATURE REVIEW-Gaming(2)
• Both feedback and instructional games have the cap
acity to function as advance organizers by stating
objectives, providing learning guidance, and suggesti
ng meaningful organization of the content to be learn
ed.
• In addition to providing appropriate feedback, a
well-designed instructional game should be based
on specific instructional objectives (Atkinson, 1977; Orbach, 19
79).
• As the learner’s self-concept improves, cognitive
learning also increases.(Coleman,1967;Olliphant,1990)
LITERATURE REVIEW-Feedback(1)
• Once learners make a response, feedback is an esse
ntial component for efficient achievement (Jacobs & Demps
ey, 1993; Morey, 1991).
• One of the most important components of feedback is
its ability to provide the learner information regarding
the correctness of their responses and to correct
inaccurate information (Anderson, Kuihavy, & Andre, 1971; 1972).
• Feedback has two primary functions, to verify and to
elaborate (Kuihavy & Stock, 1989).
LITERATURE REVIEW-Feedback(2)
•
Lee, Smith, and Savenyc (1991) have proposed three
major types of feedback:
1. knowledge of response (KOR),
2. knowledge of correct response (KCR).
3. elaborative feedback.
•
Knowledge of correct response (KCR) feedback has
been shown to be more effective in facilitating
retention than knowledge of response (KOR) feedback
(Gilman, 1969; Roper. 1977).
LITERATURE REVIEW-Feedback(3)
• Waldrop, Justen, and Adams (1986) found that knowle
dge of correct response(KCR) feedback with elaborat
ed feedback is more effective than simple knowledge
of results(KOR) feedback in facilitating retention of inf
ormation.
• Clariana (1993) also found elaborative feedback to be
more effective than knowledge of correct responses
(KCR) and knowledge of response(KOR) feedback in f
acilitating delayed retention.
LITERATURE REVIEW -Individual Differences (1)
• A number of researchers have noted the lack of res
earch on individual differences and their impact on t
he effectiveness of instructional gaming (Klein. 1992;
Orbach, 1979; Wolfe, 1985).
• Witkin (1976) identified that learners have different c
ognitive styles that effect how they process informati
on. He identified two cognitive styles — field depen
dent(場地依賴型) and field independent(場地獨立型)
as measured by the Group Embedded figures Test
(GEFT).
GEFT
• The GEFT is a standardized paper and pencil tes
t consisting of 1 8 items, which takes 20 minutes
to complete. The test has a minimum score of ze
ro and a maximum of 18
Problem Statement
•
the purpose of this study was to examine the instructio
nal effects
(a)gaming
(b)gaming plus embedded questions
(c)gaming plus questions
(d)gaming plus questions plus knowledge of respon
se feedback(KOR)
(e)gaming plus questions plus elaborative feedback
on delayed retention of different types of educational
objectives for students identified as possessing differe
nt cognitive styles (FD/FI).
METHODOLOGY
• The subject matter emphasize:
─the physiology and functions of the human heart duri
ng the systolic and diastolic phases.
• web-based presentation module:
─consisted of a web-based, self-paced instructional u
nit.
─The instructional unit contained approximately 2,000
words describing the human heart, its pafls, and its
cyclic functions.
CRITERION MEASURES
Dwyer(1987,p269)
• Drawing test：(cued recall)
─to evaluate student ability to construct and/or reproduce items in
their appropriate context.
• Identification test：(多重選擇)
─to evaluate student ability to identify parts or positions of an obje
ct.
• Terminology test：(多重選擇)
─to measure knowledge of specificity, terms, and definitions.
• Comprehension test： (多重選擇)
─It measured comprehension of the simultaneous functions occurri
ng during the systolic and diastolic phases.
• Composite test score：
─to measure total achievement of the objectives presented in the i
nstructional unit.
Instructional Game “Heart Attack”
• had students attempt to save a patient in a specified
period of time (15 minutes) by correctly answering qu
estions about the parts and functions of the human h
eart.
• The game was designed to reinforce,
develop, and refine the instruction.
• The game was played individually;
however, they competed with
each other for high score and
the fastest time to save the patient.
Treatment Description
• Treatment 1
─Instructional unit with no instructional game.
• Treatment 2
─ Instructional unit with instructional game
(Questions Oniy, No Feedback)
• Treatment 3
─ Instructional unit with instructional game
(Questions with Knowledge of Response Feedback)
• Treatment 4
─ Instructional unit with instructional game
(Questions with Elaborative Feedback)
Treatment 1
• Students in treatment I received their respective treatm
ents containing the 20 static instructional visuals but di
d not interact with the instructional game providing opp
ortunities for motivation (Figure 1).
Treatment 2
• Students receiving Treatment 2 received the same
instruction as did students in Treatment I; however,
they interacted with the instructional game using 43
multiple-choice questions with no immediate feedba
ck ( Figure 2)
Treatment 3
• Students in Treatment 3 received the same instruction
as did students in Treatment 3; however, they received
knowledge of response feedback immediately after the
learner completed the instructional unit (Figure 3)
Treatment 4
• Students in Treatment 4 received the same instruction
as did students in Treatment 3; however, they received
elaborative feedback immediately after the completing t
he instructional unit (Figure 4)
Experimental Procedure and Design
• 422 college level students
• three separate sections:
Session one：
─required approximately 10 minutes of presentation time and 20
minutes to administer the DEFT (field independent、field depe
ndent、field neutral )
─Stratified random sampling (Figure 5)
Session two：
─held two weeks later required approximately 45 minutes for
students to complete the instructional unit and the game.
Session three：
─required approximately 30 minutes for the delayed testing two
weeks later
Results
•
criterion measures：
composite
identification
terminology
comprehension
drawing
•
(F= (3,292)=9.52, p<.OO1)
(F=3,292)=4.37, p<.O5 )
(F=3,292)=7.39, p<.OO1 )
(F=3,292)=4.8O, p<.OO3)
(P=3,292)=7.71, p<.OO1)
cognitive style：
Composite
(F=1 ,292)=37.36. p<.OOI )
identification
(F=I ,292)=22.77, p<.OOl )
Terminology
(F=1 ,292)=22.34, p<.OOl )
comprehension (F=1 ,292)=37.49, p<.OO1 )
Drawing
(F=I ,292)=20.4 I, p<.OOI )
F1>FD
FI>FD
F1>FD
FI>FD
FI>FD
F
P
F
P cognitive style
9.52 <.001 37.36 <.001 FI>FD
<.05 22.77 <.001
FI>FD
7.39 <.001 22.34 <.001
FI>FD
4.80 <.003 37.49 <.001
FI>FD
7.71 <.001 20.41 <.001
FI>FD
4.37
Statistically insignificant interactions were found to exist between cognitive
style and treatment type on all criterion measures.
Results
• Analyses on the statistically significant mean effect
DISCUSSION (1)
• Instructional games that require repeated responses to
specific information improves delayed retention by increasi
ng attention to information that enhances the encoding of
information to long-term memory (Anderson & Biddle, 1975; Anders
on & Faust, 1973; Andre, 1979; 1987; Harnaker, 1986).
• When feedback was included in the game statistically
significant differences in achievement was realized on all
criterion measures. However, the same level of feedback w
as not both effective and efficient for all criterion measures.
• Used an instructional game with feedback provided the
level of rehearsal necessary for the synthesis of information
to move into long-term memory for delayed retention.
• Different rehearsal methods have different effects in
facilitating delayed retention.
DISCUSSION (2)
• Differences between field independent and field depe
ndent learners are due to less efficient information
processing on the part of the field dependent learner r
ather than on the use of different cognitive processes.
• Games without sustained elaborative feedback are not
an effective strategy for facilitating increased student
achievement.
• additional research be conducted on cognitive style
to identify strategies that have the predictability of
reducing individual differences among students (FD/
F1).
The End
Thanks