An Introduction to
THEORIES of LEARNING
Ninth Edition
CHAPTER
16
A Final Word
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Currents Trends in Learning
Theory
• Less Ambitious Theories
• Everyone Is a Neuroscientist
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Currents Trends in Learning
Theory
• Uttal: “Without exception, every part of
every system of the brain so far studied
has been shown to participate in a
number of cognitive processes. No part
of the brain operates in isolation.
Modern research is increasingly making
it likely that most parts of the brain are
active in most cognitive processes.”
(2011, p. 366)
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Left-Brain/Right-Brain Education
 A number of well-intentioned, but
underinformed, educational
applications.
 People freely describe tasks, other
people, and themselves as right- or leftbrained as matters of fact—all in
ignorance of research data to the
contrary.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Brain-Based Learning/Education
 First assumption is that “The brain is a
parallel processor” but see Rumelhart
and McClelland (Chapter 14).
 Second assumption is that “Learning
engages the entire physiology” but see
Pavlov (Chapter 7) and Estes’ (Chapter
9).
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Brain-Based Learning/Education
 Third assumption is that “The search for
meaning is innate” but see Gestalt
theorists (Chapter 10) and Piaget
(Chapter 11).
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Brain-Based Learning/Education
 Fourth assumption is that “The search
for meaning occurs through ‘patterning’”
see the Gestaltists again.
 Fifth assumption is that “Emotions are
critical to patterning” but see Pavlov,
Tolman (Chapter 12), and Bandura
(Chapter 13).
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Brain-Based Learning/Education
 Sixth assumption is that “Every brain
simultaneously perceives and creates
parts and wholes,” yet another Gestalt
principle.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Brain-Based Learning/Education
 Seventh assumption is that “Learning
involves both focused attention and
peripheral perception” but see Estes’
theory and Lewin’s Gestalt Field Theory.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Brain-Based Learning/Education
 Eighth assumption is that “Learning
always involves conscious and
unconscious processes;” both Tolman
and Bandura addressed this
phenomenon.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Brain-Based Learning/Education
 Ninth assumption is that “We have (at
least) two types of memory systems:
spatial and rote learning.”
• Tolman introduced the concepts of spatial
learning and cognitive maps,
contemporary research psychologists
also recognize short-term memory along
with different types of long-term
memory.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Brain-Based Learning/Education
 Tenth assumption is “The brain
understands and remembers best when
facts and skills are embedded in natural
spatial memory,” and we are reminded
of the Gestalt learning principles
espoused by Wertheimer.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Brain-Based Learning/Education
 Eleventh assumption is that “Learning is
enhanced by challenge and inhibited by
threat,” which is a poetic restatement of
Hebb’s notion (Chapter 14) that there is
an optimal arousal level for performance
but that too much arousal is
detrimental.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Neuroscience and Education
• Brain-Based Learning/Education
 Twelfth assumption is that “Every brain
is unique,” which is probably true but
impossible to verify empirically.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Learning Styles
• The twelfth assumption of brain based
education implies that
 Each individual will, therefore, have his
or her own optimal approach to, or style
of, learning.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Learning Styles
• Pasher, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjork
(2009) were commissioned to review
Learning Styles research.
• During the last several decades, at
least 71 different learning style
assessment tools—for all purposes, 71
different theories of learning style—
have been documented.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Learning Styles
• Looked for evidence of “crossover
interaction.”
• Concluded that there is NO compelling
evidence for Learning Styles.
• Called for a research based approach.
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved
Some Unanswered Questions
About Learning
• How Does Learning Vary as a Function
of Maturation?
• How Many Kinds of Learning Exist?
• What About Reinforcement?
• NO FINAL ANSWERS ABOUT THE
LEARNING PROCESS
An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition
Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved