International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 3 · Number 3 · 2008
381
Utilizing Video to Facilitate Reflective
Practice: Developing Sports Coaches
Fraser Carson
Department of Sport and Physical Activity,
Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, L39 4QP, UK
E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The professionalization of sports coaching has led to a constant need to
develop and improve coaching performance and behavior. As a result,
reflective practice has become common place within coaching and
relevant to the development of sports coaches. This study aims to develop
on traditional reflective processes, by identifying how video can be used to
assist the learning process of coaches. Nineteen inexperienced coaches
recounted their experience of using a video recording of a personal
coaching practice, concentrating on: (a) the reflective process, (b) the use
of video to assist this process, and (c) the practicalities of video reflection.
Content analysis suggests increases in cognitive understanding of the
coaching process and improvement in coaching performance are
experienced through this form of reflection. Initial results suggest that video
reflection can help improve inexperienced sports coaches by highlighting
strengths and weaknesses in performance that may be overlooked by
traditional methods.
Key words: Coach Behaviour, Coach Education, Reflection, Video
Technology
INTRODUCTION
Within sport, reflection has become a widely employed tool to aid understanding and
development [1] and is utilized by coaches to evaluate personal performance [2]. Reflection
is suggested to be integral to developing experience within sports coaching [3]. Gilbert and
Trudel [4] demonstrated that coaches utilize reflective practice to support the learning
process. It could therefore be suggested that the use of reflection by inexperienced and
novice coaches is more crucial as there could be a greater requirement of this knowledge for
the learning process [5, 6]. Anderson et al. [7] suggest that the reflective process requires the
practitioner to be questioning of his / her practice while examining each component in detail,
therefore requiring some degree of introspection [2]. There are a number of methods and
theories related to the process of reflection. Gibbs’ [8] cyclical model identifies six stages to
progress through, enabling the practitioner to: (a) describe the situation; (b) become aware
of his / her feelings during the practice; (c) evaluate the strengths and areas for improvement;
(d) analyze these evaluations; (e) identify alternative behaviors or practices; and (f)
formulate an action plan for future use. Ghaye [6] suggested a number of specific questions
Reviewer:
Wade Gilbert (California State University Fresno, USA)
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Video Reflection and Coach Development
that would encourage sport coaches to initiate reflective practice: (a) What is my coaching
like? (b) Why is it like this? (c) How has it come to be this way? (d) What aspects of it would
I like to improve? (e) Whose interests are being served (or denied) by my coaching? (f) What
nourishes and / or constrains what I do? (g) What pressures prevent / limit me from coaching
in alternative ways? (h) What alternatives are available to me right know? Other strategies
related to the process of reflection include journal writing [9]; supervisor / mentor support
[5, 10, 11]; shared learning experiences [12, 13]; and initiated learning experiences [9, 12].
The aim of all such practices is to facilitate self-development [6, 14].
Lyle [2] and Kidman [14] suggest that reflection is integral to coach education and the
coaching process. Professional growth [15] and an increased understanding of personal
performance [16] can both be developed through the utilization of reflective processes.
Rather than ignoring or avoiding specific instances that have occurred within practice,
reflection encourages the practitioner to deal with these issues and to work through a process
either to limit / remove debilitating practice or to increase facilitative practice [17].
Reflective practice also encourages practitioners to gain autonomy of their performance [18].
Anderson et al. [17] propose that reflection on decisions and experiences augments the
understanding and learning process of the practitioner. The overall benefit of reflection is the
encouragement of practitioners to cognitively analyze personal performance to encourage
learning and development [6].
Hammond [19] ascertained that performance analysis techniques utilized to develop
athletic performance were also beneficial to sports coaching. He advocates the use of video
within reflective practice, in order to encourage a more holistic evaluation of the
instructional process in sport. Franks and Miller’s [20] identification that coaches are less
than 45% correct in post-performance analysis and feedback adds further rationale for the
use of video within reflection. Brewer et al. [21] suggest that retrospective approaches can
be influenced by the event outcomes achieved and this can lead to casual conclusions being
made. Simply, general post-performance reflection could be based on only partial
information and as a result vital information could be overlooked. Most literature discussing
the use of video within reflective practice has encouraged analysis of experienced performers
[22]; however this neglects the benefits of personal experience within the reflective process.
Byra [23] utilized video reflection of personal teaching practice within the education of preservice physical education teachers and identified a greater depth of analysis was presented
rather than a simple description of performance. Video has also been used to explore the
cognitive aspects of coaching [24].
Borrie and Knowles [25] and Ghaye [6] acknowledged the value of reflective practice
within sports coaching settings. Werthner and Trudel [26] discuss the benefits of combining
formal education with personal coaching experience. Gilbert [27] highlighted a lack of
contemporary literature related to effective coach education, while Demers et al. [28] called
for further research specifying coaches’ analysis of personal coaching performance. Jones
and Turner [12] suggest that any coach education program should be based on improving the
participants’ ability to deal with the dynamic nature of coaching. This concept is further
developed by Rodgers et al.’s [29] suggestion that coach education should emphasize desired
coaching behaviors, the enhancement of desirable specific skills [28], and lead to increased
coaching efficacy especially with inexperienced coaches [30]. The development of coach
education programs is linked to the professionalization of coaching [2]. Initiatives to elevate
coaching to a profession [31] should ensure that certain occupational standards are achieved
by those undertaking sports coaching qualifications. Encouraging reflective practice by all
within the coaching environment could assist with the attainment and advancement of these
International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Volume 3 · Number 3 · 2008
383
occupational standards [1], but as yet no formal structure has been implemented [31].
The present study aims to address some of these issues by analysing the benefits of
integrating video reflection to facilitate a coach education program with inexperienced sports
coaches.
METHOD
PARTICIPANTS
Nineteen final-year undergraduate students (16 male; 3 female) on the B.Sc. (Hons)
Coaching and Performance Development (n = 10) or B.A. (Hons) Coach Education and
Participant Development (n = 9) degree programs at a North West England university took
part in the study. All had at least a level-1 U.K. coaching qualification recognised by a sport
governing body and had on average 20 (±6) months experience of practical coaching at
school or youth-club level. Although not novice coaches, all could be considered
inexperienced and in the early stages of their coaching career. Six sports were covered in all:
soccer (n = 10), basketball (n = 3), rugby (n = 3), badminton (n =1), field hockey (n = 1), and
golf (n = 1). Coaches were selected due to their involvement within an applied sports
coaching module and the video reflection contributed to the assessment for this module.
They had previously or were currently attending similar modules related to sports coaching
and reflective practice, the contents of which included: planning and structuring of coaching
sessions; effective communication and feedback; motivational climates and strategies; motor
learning and skill acquisition; and theories / models of reflective practice. Comparable with
Knowles et al. [32], the learning outcomes of prior modules stated that students should be
able to analyze contemporary literature in relation to coaching practice and to draw on this
knowledge to identify strengths / areas for improvement within coaching practice.
DESIGN
Each coach video-recorded his / her activity during a full coaching session, conducted within
his or her usual coaching environment with sessions ranging in duration from 45 to 90
minutes. The coaches were provided with guidelines as to how best record the session [33].
The recording was utilized, along with his / her background knowledge of effective coaching
procedures developed in relation to the contemporary literature available, to reflect on his /
her personal coaching. In general, coaches conducted an initial reflection using the video
straight after the coaching session and a more detailed analysis was completed within the two
following days, to allow for recall of the situation to be utilized in conjunction with the
analysis. The average time for each reflection ranged between 90 and 180 minutes. Each
coach was required to identify the strengths of their coaching practice and to highlight areas
for improvement, providing a rationale that was supported by the existing literature. Each
coach provided a 2000-word written report related to his / her observations and reflections,
as well as a 500-word section related to how the reflective process had benefited him- or
herself. This written report was utilized to gather further information related to the reflective
practice process and the use of video within the process.
Each participant completed a pre-designed open-ended questionnaire related to their
experience. The focus of this data collection method was split into three main areas: (a) the
process of reflective practice; (b) the use of video to assist this process; and (c) the
practicalities of reflecting using video. Each of the questions was established using an
extensive range of current literature on reflective practice.
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DATA ANALYSIS
A hierarchal content analysis was conducted on all the data sources, following the guidelines
suggested by Patton [34]. Specifically, the following five-step process was employed: (a) all
the participants’ responses were read and re-read to allow the researcher to become familiar
with them; (b) significant statements, relating to the reflective process, were extracted from
the data; (c) these statements were grouped together into like terms to form raw data themes;
(d) the raw data themes were then incorporated into higher-order themes that described the
participants’ experiences; and (e) each higher-order theme was compared and categorized
into one of two general dimensions (Reflective Practice or Video Reflection).
Trustworthiness [35] was established principally by the triangulation of data sources.
Concurrent analysis of different data sources assists building a coherent justification for the
themes identified [36]. Further credibility was achieved by member checking and negative
case analysis. An audit trail, detailing all data and data analysis procedures, is available for
additional inspection.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Content analysis revealed 34 raw data themes that were coalesced into five higher-order
themes: (a) Reflective process; (b) Purpose of reflection; (c) Video reflection in coaching; (d)
Personal learning from video; and (e) Practical implications (see Figure 1).
REFLECTIVE PROCESS AND PURPOSE OF REFLECTION
The benefit of reflective practice to the learning process was highlighted [3], with most
coaches stating this method helped them to improve their performance (e.g., “It was a way
of identifying my personal needs, to look back at the session and identify ways to improve.”;
“It allowed me to gain more knowledge of the subject.”), and as such is suggested to be an
integral part of any coach education program [37]. The development of autonomy in the
learning process is encouraged by self-reflection and coaches should become accustomed to
self-awareness and self-improvement in order to develop their personal coaching skills [38].
Comments made by the coaches included: “I’d never really thought about what I did when I
was coaching, or why I did it. This [reflection] made me question my actions and consider
improvements to my personal performance.” Although the coaches who participated in this
present study had some experience of reflective practice and the theory behind it, further
understanding of these processes may be necessary in order for a more detailed analysis to
be achieved. Knowles et al. [9] identified this to be an issue and suggest that reflective skills
are not conventional responses and need to be developed through practice. The majority of
responses are concerned with the negative aspects of the coaching performance (“Reflection
allowed me to see what I had performed badly”; “[Reflection] highlighted where I needed
to improve”; “I was able to look back at problems and identify how to eradicate them,
making me a better coach”) and little reflection related to the positive features of the
coaching, consistent with previous literature of equivalently experienced coaches [32].
Reflection on weaknesses rather than strengths will inherently help improve performance,
but this may limit the overall development of each coach. With only negative feedback
acknowledged, a range of issues can arise, particularly those related to motivation [39].
VIDEO REFLECTION IN COACHING
The major advantage of video within reflection is that it reduces the emphasis on memory
and allows for a greater range of coaching behaviors to be analyzed. Coaches suggested that
video reflection “identifies more incidents that occur during the session”, “shows more stuff
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Identifying the positive and negative
aspects
Looking back on what was done
Identifying ways to improve
Analysing personal performance
Allows for continuous learning
Evaluate personal performance
Establish future learning areas
Improve performance
Identify specific issues in personal
coaching
Overcome coaching weaknesses
Reduced reliance on memory
Identification of more incidents
Identified greater range of strengths and
weaknesses
Can analyze actual occurrences
Improves understanding of participants
viewpoint
Allowed for easier reflection
Beneficial to rewind and re-analyse
Can analyse both coach and performer
Enables breakdown of session
Highlights critical incidents
Weak communication
Non-verbal communication needs
improvement
Positioning was poor
Need to improve coaching practice
knowledge
Lack of experience
Lack of focus on all groups
Timing of progressions poor
Confident performance
Gained greater knowledge of coaching
process
Access to decent video recording
equipment
Time and space to video could be limited
Poor sound quality
Participants can “play up” to camera
Need to be regularly coaching
Figure 1 – Content Analysis Results
385
Reflective
Process
Reflective
Practice
Purpose of
Reflection
Video Reflection
in Coaching
Personal
Learning from
Video
Practical
Implications
Video
Reflection
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Video Reflection and Coach Development
than you remember”, and “highlights errors that I hadn’t noticed before”. Similarly, it can
reduce the opportunity for inappropriate or incorrect reflections being drawn [1]. One coach
explained: “I thought that I’d performed this demonstration really well until I saw it on the
video. I’d actually got my foot positioning wrong, which confused the player”. In particular,
the coaches found the video reflection valuable as it allowed for a more detailed analysis of
performance to take place. Coach responses noted “it allowed me to rewind and review the
session on multiple occasions” and “the video made the reflection easier as I couldn’t
remember some of things that I did during the session”. This may improve the overall benefit
of reflective practice, specifically by reducing incorrect analysis caused by poor recall. Video
reflection does appear to assist cognitive development of coaches [24]. Further research is
required to establish the extent to which video reflection benefits performance development
above traditional reflective practice methods; and whether these increases are significant in
relation to the added time associated with their set-up. An interesting point was provided by
one coach who suggested that “the major benefit of the video was it allowed me to see me
coach from the performers’ point of view”. This could add more depth to the reflective
process and greater understanding of personal coaching performance, allowing the analysis
from an alternative perspective.
PERSONAL LEARNING FROM VIDEO
In relation to personal coaching performances, the majority of coaches identified similar
behaviors, mostly related to communication, confidence and coaching style. Of concern is
that a large percentage of the responses related to weaknesses with communication (“I
noticed that some things I say do not need to be said, which changes the emphasis and
meaning of my communication”; “I was too repetitive”; “I used a number of technical terms
during my session that the players didn’t understand. I hadn’t realised until I watch the video
back”). While in general coaches are continually trying to develop their communication
skills [40], it would be anticipated that these skills were more advanced in university based
students. Although no specific data exists for each coach’s perceptions of these skills prior to
the recorded session, most suggested that they were surprised by their actual performance (“I
didn’t realise that I was so limited in my communication. I just kept saying the same things
over and over” and “I just seemed to say things for the sake of saying something. If things
went quiet I would just shout something out, like ‘keep it up’”.) There was a tendency for
coaches to rely on comments such as “good job”, “nice try” and “well done”. This was
corroborated by the coaches during the reflection (“I thought that I’d told the players some
really good things, but from the video it’s clear that I really didn’t. I just told them to keep
trying”). The video was the first opportunity for these inexperienced coaches had to critically
analyze their personal performance. The recommendations made by each coach within their
written report provide support for the utilization of video within a coach education program
(“It allowed me to analyse my coaching more deeply and relate it to the literature easier.
Therefore my knowledge of the coaching process was expanded because I could see how
everything was related”). A number of areas, such as positioning of the coach, speed of
progression and non-verbal communication, may not have been identified by traditional
reflective practice processes.
Again personal reflection concentrated on the negative aspects when analyzed from the
video. Within the written report, the “areas for development” section outweighed the defined
strengths and all coaches suggested recommendations concerned with how to improve weak
performance (“The space I used was not sufficient, I needed to put much more space between
the performers”; “I lacked confidence, which made me very authoritarian in my coaching
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style”; “My positioning was poor and that meant I didn’t progress the activities quickly
enough”; “My body language was really bad, I spent most of the time with my arms folded
and not looking interested”). A similar identification was made within the questionnaire
responses, with only three coaches describing positive aspects. All three respondents
suggested that they appeared more confident than they perceived during the session (“I was
confident and direct with my communication”; “I was more confident than I thought, which
allowed me to deliver a good, clear and progressive coaching session”; “I was pleased with
my performance and was more self-assured than I thought”).
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
With regard to the practical implications, all coaches reported a number of difficulties in
conducting video reflections (“I didn’t know how to use the video camera”; “The batteries
didn’t seem to last very long and I was constantly having to check it was still recording”;
“Finding the best place to put the camera is difficult. You need to make sure that the coach
can be seen all the time, but making sure that it’s not too close or far away, and is not going
to get knocked down”). The primary concern related to the quality of recording equipment
available, particularly with a lack of sound quality when coaching outdoors. Wind
interference can make reflection on the coach’s verbal communication almost impossible and
should be taken into account when recommending this type of reflection. The performers
within the coaching session also raised some concerns, as they had a tendency to act
differently in front of the camera, especially young performers who were partial to “playing
up” to the camera. Observational analysis guidelines, as suggested by van der Mars [33]
should be followed to limit this interference. Other limitations related to the time available
to conduct this reflection outside of university course work.
All the coaches did suggest that they gained a greater understanding of the coaching
process by utilizing the video to critically analyze personal performance, especially when
this was underlined by contemporary coaching literature (“…comparing my practice with the
theory helped me get a better understanding of what I had learned during the course” and
“I didn’t understand some of the theory before I saw myself actually use it in the video”).
This provides strong support for the introduction of video reflection on a more regular basis
to coach education programs designed to increase coaching efficacy. With some knowledge
of generic coaching skill requirements, inexperienced coaches could improve their coaching
through a greater understanding of personal performance [12]. The provision of
contemporary literature to support the rationale behind the reflection is also suggested to aid
the learning process [15]. In order for critical analysis of personal performance to be
effective, the coach could benefit from utilizing a range of coaching theories. By identifying
good practice from published literature, the cognitive understanding of the coach could be
developed [2].
LIMITATIONS
The homogeneous nature of the participants may be an influencing factor within this study.
All coaches were at a similar ability level, had similar coaching experience, and had
undergone a similar coach education program. Their previous encounters with reflective
practice could have been influenced by the specific tutor delivering the reflective practice
module in terms of the specific areas reflected upon and the reflective practice model that the
coach based their reflection on. Similarly, with the underlying principle of the process being
related to coursework that was assessed, the practice engaged in by the coaches may have
been biased by the marking criteria set by the tutor.
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Future research may need to refine the data analysis procedures, specifically utilizing
individual interviews to gain an in-depth understanding of each coach’s personal opinion.
Furthermore, it is suggested that each coach should reflect on the session prior to the video
analysis, as this would allow for a comprehensive analysis regarding the use of the video
within the reflective process. There can also be some discussion concerning the ability of
inexperienced coaches to reflect. The coach may be constrained by their prior knowledge of
the coaching process, good coaching practice and reflection, and therefore the question is
posed “can inexperienced coaches truly reflect?”
The process of video reflection could be easily implemented within any coach education
program. Similarly this approach can be done independently by coaches wishing to develop
personal performance. The greatest influence is related to the time needed to conduct the
reflection. Findings of the present study suggest the principle importance of the video is to
aid accurate reflection and avoid reliance on memory. Therefore any time that could be
allocated to video reflection may be beneficial to performance development. Further research
is necessary to establish if a specific amount of time is required for a comprehensive
reflection.
Further investigation is required to ascertain the most effective method to integrate video
reflection within large-scale coach education programs. A suggestion would be to encourage
inexperienced coaches to work with a mentor for the initial reflections, until competence in
the process is developed, but this may be limited by group size. Whole group sessions could
be conducted utilizing pre-recorded videos to introduce the important components of video
reflection to large groups. Côté [41] suggests that coach education programs should
incorporate more “cooperative learning opportunities”. As with any reflective process,
experience should lead to more detailed analysis and as such awareness of the process should
be implemented early in the program.
CONCLUSION
Although greater knowledge of the coaching process allows for a more detailed analysis, the
use of video reflection highlights strengths and weaknesses of practice. The development of
digital technology to assist athletic development is becoming common place [42] and
coaches could use this technology to improve their coaching performance. The ability to
analyze performance accurately, especially in relation to best practice, should allow for better
cognitive understanding of the coaching process. Initial video reflection will be related to the
identification of areas for improvement. The coach should be encouraged also to analyze
good performance and to contemplate further development of these areas, particularly in
relation to occupational standards and good practice.
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