NEWBORN CALF VITALITY: RISK
FACTORS, CHARACTERISTICS,
ASSESSMENT, RESULTING
OUTCOMES AND STRATEGIES FOR
IMPROVEMENT
Christine Murray, PhD Candidate
Outline
Dystocia: effects on the calf
 Causes of reduced newborn vitality
 Consequences of reduced vitality
 Vitality scoring
 Methods to improve calf vitality
 Study results
 Biomarker for calf vitality
and long-term health
 Conclusions

Dystocia: Effects on the Calf



Parturition can be the most hazardous and
traumatic event in the life of a calf
Dystocia and subsequent health events account
for up to 50% of all calf deaths
In severe dystocia cases, calves have:
20.7 greater odds of stillbirth
 1.7 & 1.3 greater odds of being treated for
respiratory & digestive disease, respectively
 6.7 greater odds of mortality

(Lombard et al., 2007; Furman-Fratczak et al., 2011)
Dystocia: Effects on the Calf

Factors causing dystocia may include:
 Pelvic
dimension of the dam
 Calf size
 Feto-pelvic disproportion
 Calf presentation
 Inappropriate timing of intervention or excessive
force applied during delivery
 Maternal factors, such as weak labor, insufficient
dilation of the cervix and uterine torsion
(Meijering, 1984; Schuijt, 1990; Mee, 2008)
Dystocia: Effects on the Calf

Dystocia may have implications for calf vitality, as well as
long-term health and productivity

Vitality: having the capacity to live and grow with physical
and mental energy and strength

Physiological effects of dystocia:


Inflammation, pain, injury, inability to maintain homeostasis,
hypoxia and acidosis
Behavioral repercussions:

Reduced motivation to perform natural behaviours for survival,
including standing up and suckling colostrum after birth
(Breazile et al., 1988; Besser et al., 1990; Carstens, 1994; Barrier et al., 2012)
Outline

Dystocia: effects on the calf

Causes of reduced newborn vitality
Causes of Reduced Calf Vitality

Pain, injury & inflammation

Hypoxia/acidosis
 Respiratory
 Metabolic

acidosis
acidosis
Impaired thermoregulation
(Meyer et al., 2000; Lombard et al.,2007; Waldner and Rosengren, 2009)
Pain, Injury and Inflammation
Improper obstetrical assistance & excessive force:

Fetal Blood loss



Improper clamp timing
Premature umbilical cord rupture
Fractures

Long bones
40% rib fractures
 10% fractured vertebra
Trauma





Liver rupture
Tracheal collapse
Meningeal hemorrhages
Hypoxia/Acidosis

Hypoxia refers to an inadequate supply of oxygen to
the cells & tissues of the body

Premature umbilical cord rupture causing an inability
to breath = Respiratory Acidosis
 Termination
of blood oxygenation from the placenta
 Intense and
prolonged labor contractions
 Trauma

during forced extraction
If severe, fetal tissues will derive O2 from anaerobic
glycolysis = Metabolic Acidosis
Hypoxia/Acidosis



Asphyxia can cause decreased blood flow to the
liver and kidneys leading to hepatic necrosis, liver
dysfunction and renal tubular necrosis
Other implications include aspiration pneumonia,
edema, bleeding, and death
Schuijt and Taverne (1994) found that calves born
from a severe dystocia had more serious acidosis,
took longer at achieve a normal pH (>7.2) and had
a greater risk of mortality
(Mulling, 1977; Ikeda et al., 2000; Poulsen and McGuirk, 2009)
Hypoxia/Acidosis
7.35
7.3
pH at SR
7.25
0 people
7.2
1 person
2 people
7.15
3 people
7.1
7.05
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
Duration of Calving (Min)
(Murray et al., unpublished results)
120
135
Thermoregulation

Depending on the degree of stress, calving
environment and season of birth, maintaining
homeostasis can be challenging

Decreased available energy needed for the
mobilization and metabolic activity of brown
adipose tissue during non-shivering thermogenesis

Reduced muscle tonicity, preventing shivering

Less able to withstand cold stress
(Stott and Reinhard, 1978; Okamoto et al., 1986; Vermorel et al.,
1989; Bellows and Lammoglia, 2000)
Thermoregulation

Newborn calves can generate body heat through
physical activity

Standing up, walking and consuming colostrum
may be challenging for calves with low vigor,
especially in temperatures outside of their
thermoneutral zone (10-25°C or 50-78°F)

Energy and heat acquired through colostrum
ingestion may also be delayed or reduced in calves
with low vitality
(Vermorel et al., 1989; Grove-White, 2000; Barrier et al., 2012)
Outline

Dystocia: effects on the calf
Causes of reduced newborn vitality

Consequences of reduced vitality

Consequences of Dystocia

Dystocia causing pain, injury, inflammation,
hypoxia, acidosis, and impaired thermoregulation
all lead to calf weakness and reduced vitality

Decreased ability to perform
tasks for survival
Standing
 Walking
 Suckling colostrum

(Schuijt and Tavern ,1994 ; Diesch et al., 2004 ; Barrier et al, 2012)
Consequences of Dystocia
Probability of not achieving sternal recumbency within 15 minutes of birth
0.00
0.25
0.50
Probability
0.75
1.00
Kaplan-Meier survival estimates
0
5
10
analysis time (min)
calving_score = 1
calving_score = 3
(Murray et al., unpublished results)
calving_score = 2
calving_score = 4
15
Consequences of Dystocia
Probability of not attempting to stand within 15 minutes of birth
0.00
0.50
0.25Probability
0.75
1.00
Kaplan-Meier survival estimates
0
50
100
analysis time (min)
calving_score = 1
calving_score = 3
(Murray et al., unpublished results)
calving_score = 2
calving_score = 4
150
Consequences of Dystocia
Suckling Response vs Calving Difficulty at 2 Hours
60%
50%
% Calves
40%
Unassisted
30%
Easy Pull
20%
Hard Pull
10%
0%
Weak
Medium
Suckling Response
(Murray et al., unpublished results)
Strong
Consequences of Dystocia

Increased time to achieve sternal recumbency
(SR), first attempt to stand and reduced
suckling response

Suckling reflex and time to SR have been used as
objective indicators of fetal stress and vigor in
newborn calves

Calves forcefully extracted took significantly
longer to achieve SR and had a lower overall
state of vitality
(Schulz et al.,1997; Schuijt and Taverne, 1994, Murray et al., unpublished results)
Consequences of Low Calf Vitality

Calves with low vigor have an increased
risk of failure of passive transfer due to low
volume of ingested colostrum
 Failure
to get up and drink
 Reduced

suckling reflex
Up to 74% reduced
colostrum intake in calves with fetal
distress 12h after birth
(Vermorel, 1989; Furman-Fratczak et al., 2011; Barrier et al., 2012)
Consequences of Low Calf Vitality
In other studies, IgG absorption is reduced in
calves with dystocia induced respiratory
acidosis
 In severely acidotic calves, a 52% decrease in
colostrum intake is correlated with a 35%
decrease in serum IgG concentration
 Significant inverse relationship between
venous partial pressure of CO2 at birth and
12h post feeding serum IgG concentration

(Besser et al., 1990; Boyd, 1989; Drewery et al., 1999)
Consequences of Low Calf Vitality
(Boyd, 1989)
Long Term Health Effects

Failure of passive transfer may result in:
 31%
of pre-weaning mortality
 30%
decrease in pre-pubertal growth rate
 30
day increase to first insemination
 Produced
2,263 lbs less milk over first 2 lactations
 16%
decrease in survival to the end of the second
lactation
(DeNise et al., 1989; Faber et al., 2005; Furman-Fratczak et al., 2011)
Outline

Dystocia: effects on the calf
Causes of reduced newborn vitality
Consequences of reduced vitality

Vitality scoring


Human Fetal Monitoring

APGAR (Virginia Apgar)

5 essential assessments:
 Appearance
(Color)
 Pulse (Heart rate)
 Grimace (Stimulation)
 Activity (Muscle tone)
 Respiration
Modified APGAR Scores




Developed for piglet, foal and puppy
Included variables such as heart and respiratory rate,
reflexes, mobility and mucous membrane colour
Pups with low vitality scores were less likely to seek
the mammary gland and had weaker suckling reflexes
and mortality was increased
Piglets with low vitality scores were slower to stand,
had more difficulty breathing, had slower heart rates,
decreased arterial blood pH and increased partial
pressure of CO2, indicating a state of acidemia and
hypercapnia
(Randall, 1971; Veronesi et al., 2009)
Modified APGAR Scores: Calves

A modified Apgar score has been assessed in
calves in several German studies
 Used
signs of asphyxia: muscle tone,
movement, reflexes, respiration and
mucous membrane colour
 The
modified Apgar score was only marginally
correlated with the results of blood-gas analysis
 Did not accurately assess the vitality status of the calf,
and calves were more appropriately classified into
vitality groups based on acid–base status.
(Mulling, 1977; Schafer and Arbeiter, 1995; Herfen and Bostedt, 1999a; Herfen and Bostedt, 1999b)
Modified APGAR Scores: Calves

Hypoxia and acidosis may be indicative of newborn
calf vitality
 Require

expensive, inconvenient and invasive lab tools
A more practical assessment using visual and
physical measures can be easily performed on farm
 Presence of
meconium staining, peripheral edema,
cyanosis of the mucous membranes, heart and
respiration rates, muscle tone, stimulation reflexes,
rectal temperature, time to SR and attempts to stand
and suckle (Mee, 2008).
U of G – Calf VIGOR Score Sheet
Outline

Dystocia: effects on the calf
Causes of reduced newborn vitality
Consequences of reduced vitality
Vitality scoring

Methods to improve calf vitality



Assessment of Pain Following
Dystocia

Studies have shown that dystocia is one of the
most painful conditions in adult cattle

The severity of pain following dystocia in adult
dairy cattle was 7, whereas it was only rated 4 in
newborn calves

Pain is a subjective experience that is not possible
to measure directly
(Huxley and Whay, 2006; Kielland et al., 2009; Laven et al., 2009)
Assessment of Pain Following
Dystocia

Behaviours and physiological measures that
can indicate pain in farm animals:
 Withdrawal
reflex
 Movement after birth
 Heart and respiration rate
 Body temperature

Are calf vitality scores directly correlated with
the degree of pain experienced by a newborn
calf?
(Molony and Kent, 1997)
Methods to Improve Vitality


Vitality scores should be used as a decision making
tool to assess if further intervention is needed
Conventional intervention methods:
 Artificial
respiration
 Respiratory stimulants
 Oxygen
 Buffer therapy for acidosis
 Thermal support
 Umbilical treatment
 Colostrum from esophageal feeder
(Mee, 2004; Mee, 2008)
Methods to Improve Vitality

Administration of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) for alleviation of pain and inflammation
(Hudson et al., 2008)
Methods to Improve Vitality





Currently no published literature on NSAID use in
calves
39% of dairy cattle veterinarians in the UK indicated
occasional use of NSAIDs in calves following dystocia
66% reported using NSAIDs in some cows following
dystocia
Decisions to use analgesia to the cow and/or calf are
often influenced by cost
The reported use of analgesics in either cows or
calves is probably greater than the actual rate of use
(Huxley and Whay, 2006 ; Hudson et al., 2008; Laven et al., 2012)
Methods to Improve Vitality




Limited usage of NSAIDs may be due to the lack of
scientific evidence of the benefits following
dystocia
It is clear that the physiological effects of dystocia
reduce newborn calf vitality
It is uncertain whether there is pain, since this
cannot be directly measured
NSAIDs may improve the time to standing, increase
colostrum uptake, improve health, overall calf
survival and welfare
(Molony and Kent, 1997; Mee, 2008; Laven et al., 2012)
Outline

Dystocia: effects on the calf
Causes of reduced newborn vitality
Consequences of reduced vitality
Vitality scoring
Methods to improve calf vitality

Study results




Meloxicam for Calf Vitality: Field Trial

A field study to evaluate of the efficacy of
meloxicam NSAID therapy for improving newborn
calf vigor, success of passive transfer, general
health and performance

Objectives:


To evaluate the usefulness of pain management therapy for
excessive trauma and enhancement of newborn calf vigor using
meloxicam injectable solution.
To determine if newborn calf vigor is associated with calving
difficulty, as well as subsequent health and performance.
Metacam®



Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)
Anti-inflammatory, anti-exudative, analgesic and
fever reducing properties
Approved for use in calves in Canada (20mg/mL)
As an aid in improving appetite and weight gains when
administered at the onset of diarrhea (Todd et al., 2010)
 For relief of pain following de-budding of horn buds in
calves less than 3 months of age (Heinrich et al., 2010)
 For the symptomatic treatment of inflammation and
pain associated with acute clinical mastitis

(Fitzpatrick et al., 2013)
Study Methods

Each calf was scored at birth
using calf VIGOR score sheet
& a birth record was
completed by the farm staff

Calves were randomly
assigned to receive either
1.0 cc meloxicam or placebo
solution s/c by farm staff

Weekly visits to herds
Study Methods
Blood was collected from all
calves 1-7 days of age to
measure success of passive
transfer
 Assess for temperature,
weight, height and health
scores up to 3 weeks old and
again at weaning
 In a subset of calves:

 Blood-gas
analysis <2h of age
 2nd VIGOR score 1-6h post Tx
 Suckling response
Calf VIGOR Score - Results
9
8
Vigor Score
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Unobserved
Observed, but
Easy pull
unassisted
Calving Difficulty
Hard pull
Calf VIGOR Score - Results
Assistance at Calving
Coefficient
95% Confidence Interval
lower limit
upper limit
P-Value
Visual Appearance
Meconium staining
Tongue/head
0.042
0.21
-0.047
0.11
0.13
0.30
0.35
<0.001
Initiation of Movement
Calf movement
0.17
0.025
0.32
0.02
General Responsiveness
Straw in nasal cavity
Tongue pinch
Eye reflex
0.21
0.16
0.043
0.10
0.062
0.0068
0.31
0.27
0.093
<0.001
0.002
0.09
Oxygenation
Mucous membrane colour 0.16
Tongue length
0.12
0.055
-0.023
0.25
0.25
0.002
0.10
Rates
Heart rate
Respiration rate
0.061
0.084
0.31
0.29
0.003
<0.001
0.18
0.19
Study Results
7.38
7.36
Predicted pH at <2h
7.34
7.32
7.3
7.28
Excellent Vigor
7.26
Moderate Vigor
7.24
Low Vigor
7.22
7.2
7.18
7.16
57.1
68.55
pC02 at <2h
78.3
Study Results
Effect of experimental treatment on VIGOR score
n
Meloxicam
(Mean±SD)
Placebo
(Mean±SD)
P-value
61
6.39±2.71
5.06±2.47
0.41
*Post-Tx VIGOR Score 61
4.71±2.34
5.12±2.37
0.091
Difference
-1.68±1.94
0.06±2.66
0.023
Pre-Tx VIGOR Score
61
*1-6 h post treatment
Calves who received Metacam® following birth had a significant improvement in
VIGOR score from the 1st to the 2nd assessment than placebo treated calves,
controlling for farm and the time after birth of VIGOR assessment (P=0.023)
Study Results
9
Serum Total Protein (g/dL)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
5
10
VIGOR Score
15
20
VIGOR score was not significantly associated with STP, after controlling for farm and age at
blood sampling for STP (β=-0.15; 95% CI=-0.55 to 0.25; P=0.46)
Study Results
Effect of treatment on suckling reflex
Meloxicam (Mean±SD) Placebo (Mean±SD)
P-value
n
Finger Test (1-3)
*Pre-treatment
†Post-treatment
19
15
1.63±0.60
2.19±0.68
1.53±0.52
1.60±0.74
0.60
0.024
Difference
0.75±0.79
0.067±0.59
0.014
0.57±0.63
0.67±0.51
0.67
0.67±0.65
-0.0013±0.46
0.11
0.072
Manometer Suckling Pressure (psi)
*Pre-treatment
†Post-treatment
Difference
*1-2 h from birth
0.99±1.08
0.41±0.77
†1-6 h post treatment
Study Results
Average Milk Intake
(L/d)
Coefficient
95% Confidence Interval
lower limit
Treatment
Metacam®
Placebo
P-value
upper limit
0.03
ref
0.0016
-
0.057
-
0.039
-
-0.0093
-0.016
-0.0034
0.002
Average # of
Rewarded Visits to
Milk Feeder
2
ref
-
-
-
4
0.080
0.050
0.11
<0.001
5
0.055
0.0093
0.10
0.019
2
0.61
0.53
0.69
<0.001
1
ref
-
-
-
Total 8 Week
Health Score
Farm
Study Results
7
Milk Intake (L/d)
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
N=124
Meloxicam
N=124
Placebo
Study Results
5
Weight Gain in Week 1 (kg)
4.5
4
3.5
n=63
3
n=166
2.5
2
n=92
Metacam
n=150
Placebo
n=55
1.5
n=100
1
0.5
0
Observed but
Unassisted
Unobserved
Calving Assistance
Assisted
Study Results
Total Health
Score
Treatment
Metacam®
Placebo
Coefficient
95% Confidence Interval
lower limit
upper limit
P-value
-0.36
ref
-0.64
-
-0.073
-
0.014
-
Season of Birth
Spring
Summer
Winter
Fall
1.21
-0.16
1.40
ref
0.082
-0.57
1.06
-
2.34
0.25
1.74
-
0.036
0.44
<0.001
-
Time colostrum
fed after birth
<2hrs
3-4 h
5-6 h
7-12 h
ref
-0.15
-0.27
1.20
-0.54
-0.98
0.21
0.25
0.45
2.10
0.43
0.46
0.018
Outline







Dystocia: effects on the calf
Causes of reduced newborn vitality
Consequences of reduced vitality
Vitality scoring
Methods to improve calf vitality
Study results
Biomarker for calf
vitality and long-term
health
Haptoglobin




Major bovine acute phase protein
Produced in response to a bacterial or viral
challenge
Works by binding free hemoglobin in plasma to
reduce the pro-oxidative and pro-inflammatory
stress associated with hemolysis
Can be used as a quantifiable indicator of tissue
damage, including infection, neoplasia or trauma
(Gruys et al., 1994; Murata et al., 2004; Petersen et al., 2004)
Haptoglobin – Indicator of
Inflammation at calving
Mean Haptoglobin (g/L)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Observed but Unobserved
Unassisted
(N=533)
(N=146)
Easy Pull
(N=356)
Hard Pull
(N=44)
Assistance at Birth
Malpresented Surgery
(N=23)
(N=7)
Haptoglobin – Indicator of Health
P<0.001, accounting for farm as a random effect
Mean Haptoglobin (g/L)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
(N=186)
1
(N=629)
2
3
(N=227)
(N=65)
Event 1 Health Score
≥4
(N=43)
Haptoglobin – Predictor of Health
P<0.05, accounting for farm as a random effect
0.18
Mean Haptoglobin (g/L)
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
No (N=890)
Yes (N=312)
Treated for BRD in 1st 4 Months
Haptoglobin – Predictor of Health
P<0.001, accounting for farm as a random effect
Mean Haptoglobin (g/L)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
No (N=1070)
Yes (N=132)
Treated for Diarrhea in the 1st 4 Months
Haptoglobin –Predictor of Mortality
P=0.001, accounting for farm as a random effect
Mean Haptoglobin (g/L)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
No
(N=1158)
Yes
(N=55)
Dead
Haptoglobin –Predictor of Mortality
Mortality
Odds Ratio
Hp (g/L)
4.29
95% CI
P-value
Lower Limit Upper Limit
1.07
17.18
0.04
Passive Transfer
Pass (>5.4g/dl)
Intermediate (5.2-5.4g/dl)
Fail (<5.2g/dl)
Ref
0.43
2.22
0.13
1.2
1.47
4.11
0.18
0.01
Treated for BRD once or more
during study period
No
Yes
Ref
2.77
1.56
4.92
0.001
Treated for scours once or more
during study period
No
Ref
Yes
3.26
1.72
6.18
<0.001
Treated for other disease once
or more during the study period
No
Yes
1
4.22
0.049
Ref
2.06
Conclusions




Effects of dystocia: pain, fractures, trauma, hypoxia &
impaired thermoregulation lead to reduced calf vigor
& failure of passive transfer
Newborn calf vitality assessed through modified
APGAR scores are well correlated to the degree of
calving assistance using practical on farm measures
NSAIDs following dystocia my improve calf vitality,
health and growth
Haptoglobin may be a biomarker for inflammation at
calving and subsequent risk of morbidity and mortality
Acknowledgements

Advisory committee:
Ken Leslie – Professor Emeritus
 Todd Duffield – Professor, Dairy Health Management
 Derek Haley – Assistant Professor, Animal Welfare
 David Pearl – Associate Professor, Epidemiology
 Doug Veira – Senior Scientist, AAFC, Agassiz BC
 Kathleen Shore – Nutritionist, Grober/New-Life Mills


Funding & support provided by:
Questions?