Key terms guide
This resource is to be used as a guide to help provide teachers and students with an
understanding of the key terms used within AS and A Level Psychology.
Aims and Hypothesis
Key term
Definition
Aim
An aim identifies the purpose of the investigation.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of
what the researchers predict/s will be the outcome of the study.
Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship
between the IV and the DV.
Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the
IV and DV.
One-Tailed Hypothesis
A one-tailed directional hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect
of the IV on the DV.
Two-Tailed Hypothesis
A two-tailed non-directional hypothesis predicts that the IV will have
an effect on the DV, but the direction of the effect is not specified.
Variables
Key term
Definition
Variable
A factor or element within the study that is likely to change.
Independent Variable
The variable/s the experimenter manipulates (i.e. Changes).
Dependent Variable
A DV is the variable which is measured by the experimenter after
they have manipulated the IV.
Extraneous Variables
Extraneous variables are other variables (not the IV) which could
affect the results of the experiment e.g. the weather.
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Experimental designs
Key term
Definition
Experimental design
Refers to the way participants are allocated to conditions, and
includes Independent Measures Design, Repeated Measures Design
and Matched Participant Design.
Individual measures
design
Where each participant is only assigned to one condition of the IV.
Repeated measures
design
Where each participant is assigned to more than one condition of the
IV
Matched-pairs Design
There are equal groups where participants are matched based on
certain characteristics e.g. gender, age…etc. Each group takes part
in a different condition of the IV.
Populations and Sampling
Key term
Definition
Participant
A person that takes part in the experiment or study.
Confederate
A confederate is an actor who participates in an experiment as a
subject along with the other participant(s).
Sample
A section of the population that is used to represent the group as a
whole.
Random sample
Each participant of the study/experiment have an equal chance of
being included in the sample.
Systematic sample
Participants of the study are selected in a logical way from a target
population. For example, if 200 University students out of 2000 were
required for a study, every 10th student from the University
list/register would be selected.
Opportunity sample
Participants are selected based on who is available at the time and
willing to participate.
Stratified sample
The researcher identifies the different types of people that make up
the target population and works out the proportions needed for
the sample to be representative.
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Experiments
Key term
Definition
Experiment
A scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a
hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact.
Laboratory Experiment
An experiment conducted under highly controlled conditions.
Field Experiment
An experiment carried out in the everyday environment (i.e. real life)
of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but the
researcher has no control over extraneous variables.
Natural/Quasi Experiment
Natural experiments are a realistic method of researching human
behaviour, as participants are in their natural environment. In these
experiments the researcher has no control over the IV, but instead
must choose a variable that is naturally occurring.
Observations
Key term
Definition
Observations
Observing of participants behaviour through controlled or
uncontrolled conditions.
Naturalistic observation
A research method where the participant’s behaviour is studied in a
natural environment.
Controlled observation
Participant’s behaviour is usually observed in a controlled
environment (laboratory) where the researcher can manipulate the
IV.
Overt observations
The research is open with their participants about observing their
behaviour. The participants know that they are being studied.
Covert Observations
The participants are unaware of the presence of the researcher and
they are NOT made aware that their behaviour is being observed.
Participant observation
The observer takes part in the experiment but their status is not
made known to the other participants.
Non-Participant
Observation
The researcher observes participants without participating in the
experiment itself.
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Other research methods
Key term
Definition
Case Study
A piece of research carried out on a particular person, group or
situation over a period of time.
Longitudinal Study
A method where data is gathered from the same participants over a
period of time. This type of research can be as long as a few years to
decades.
Snap-shot study
Different groups of people are tested at the same point in time and
their performances are compared.
Correlational study
A method where the researcher aims to look for relationships
between variables.
Cross-cultural study
The research of participants from different cultural groups.
Psychometric tests
A method of measuring participant’s mental characteristics; often
gathering quantitative data.
Interviews and questionnaires
Key term
Definition
Interview
An interview is a conversation where questions are asked and
answers are given.
Structured interview
Each interview is presented with exactly the same questions in the
same order and the researcher aims to obtain quantitative data.
Unstructured Interviews
Questions in this style of interview are not prearranged. The data
obtained from this style of interview is usually qualitative.
Questionnaires
A set of written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the
purposes of a survey or statistical study.
Open-ended questions
Are questions which obtain qualitative data by asking questions
which cannot be answered with a simple one-word answer.
Closed-ended questions
Are questions which can be answered with a simple one-word
answer e.g. “yes” or "no".
Rating scales
Requires participants to answer a question by selecting a value
(number) to reflect their perception on a topic.
Likert rating
This is a type of question that measures the attitude of individuals.
An attitude statement is given and individuals have to select the
statement most suited to them.
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Data
Key term
Definition
Primary Data
First-hand information that has been collected by the researcher for
the purpose of their study.
Secondary data
The researcher uses pre-existing data. The data could have been
from a newspaper, diary entry or even data collected by another
researcher or study.
Qualitative data
Typically descriptive data.
Quantitative data
Data that can be measured and written down with numbers.
Sources of bias
Key term
Definition
Gender bias
The emphasis of the study is more inclined to one gender.
Cultural bias
The emphasis of the study is more inclined to one ethnicity/culture.
Enthocentricism
The researcher uses their own ethnicity for judgement about other
groups.
Eurocentricism
Psychologists place emphasis on European theories/ideas at the
expense of those of other cultures.
Age bias
The emphasis of the study is more inclined to a certain age group.
Experimenter bias
The researcher influences the results in order to portray a certain
outcome.
Observer bias
The researcher's cognitive bias causes them to subconsciously
influence the participants of an experiment.
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Reliability and Validity
Key term
Definition
Reliability
The overall consistency of the measure or study.
Inter-rater reliability
The method of measuring the external consistency of a test. This
method is carried out by different “raters” giving consistent
estimates/measures of behaviour.
Internal Reliability
Assesses the consistency of results across items within a test.
External Reliability
Refers to the extent to which a measure varies from one use to
another.
Validity
Refers to the accuracy of a test’s ability to measure what it is
supposed to measure.
Ecological validity
Refers to the extent to which the findings of a research study are
able to be generalised to real-life settings.
Population Validity
How representative the sample used is to the entire population.
Face Validity
The degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or
assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims.
Demand Characteristics
A subtle cue that makes participants aware of what the experimenter
expects to find or how participants are expected to behave.
Observer Effect
Refers to subjects altering their behaviour when they are aware that
an observer is present.
Social Desirability
Describes the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions
in a manner that will be viewed favourably by others.
Type 1 error
The incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis (a "false positive").
The researcher believes that there is an effect when actually there is
not one.
Type 2 Error
Incorrectly retaining a false null hypothesis (a "false negative"). The
researcher believes there is no effect when actually there is.
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