University of Portland
Pilot Scholars
Political Science Undergraduate Publications,
Presentations and Projects
Political Science
Spring 2015
HOPE VI: A Comparative Case Study of Mixed
Income Public Housing Programs
Emily Raszler
University of Portland
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Raszler, Emily, "HOPE VI: A Comparative Case Study of Mixed Income Public Housing Programs" (2015). Political Science
Undergraduate Publications, Presentations and Projects. Paper 1.
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HOPEVI
AComparativeCaseStudyofMixedIncomePublicHousingPrograms
EmilyRaszler
SeniorHonorsProject
Spring2015
Introduction
PublichousingisoneofthelongestrunningsocialservicesintheUnited
States,withahistorythatechoestheracialtensionsandmovementsofthecountry.
Withoutpublichousing,thealreadyhighlevelsofhomelessnessincitieswouldmost
likelyskyrocket.Publichousingalsofightsagainstgentrification,keepingaffordable
housingoptionswithincitieswhilerentsaroundtheprojectsskyrocket.Famously,
duringthe1980s,publichousingprojectsbecamehotspotsforgangviolenceand
drugabuse.Tofightagainstthis,theDepartmentofHousingandUrban
DevelopmentcreatedtheHOPEVIprogramtochangethewaypublichousing
worked,movingfromsmall,fullysubsidedunitstoamixed‐incomemodel.
ThispaperwillexploretwoHOPEVIfundedpublichousingredevelopment
projects,oninPortland,OregonandoneinWashington,D.C.Itwillexaminethe
effectivenessofmixedincomehousinganddeterminewhichofthetwohousing
projectswasmostsuccessful.
HistoryofpublichousingintheUnitedStates
AswithmostpublicservicesintheUnitedStates,thehistoryofpublic
housingbeginswiththeNewDeal.In1933,CongressenactedtheNational
IndustrialRecoveryAct.Withinthispieceoflegislation,TitleII,Section202created
thefirstincarnationofpublichousingbyprovidinglow‐interestloanstopublicor
privategroupsforlow‐incomehousing.In1937,theWagner‐SteagalHousingAct
solidifiedthepermanentpublichousingprogram.However,itplacedheavy
limitationsontheconstructionofhousing,cappingthecostforeachunitat$5,000.
Constructionbegan,however,andby1939therewere50,000housingunits
intendedforpublichousinguse.Supportfortheseprojectswaswidespreadasa
meanstoanendofjobcreation,athemethatresonatesthroughoutthehistoryof
publichousingintheUnitedStates.
ThepublichousingprogramcontinuedtogrowwiththeHousingActof1949.
Thislegislationwascreatedwiththegoalofa“decenthomeinadecent
environmentforeveryAmerican.”ItexpandedtheFederalHousingadministration
andfederalinvolvementinmortgageinsurance,providedtheauthorityandfunding
forslumclearanceandurbanrenewal,andinitiatedconstructionofpublichousing
withagoalof810,000units.Themodernincarnationoffederalpublichousing
policybeginsin1965withtheHousingandUrbanDevelopmentAct.Thiscreated
theDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment(HUD),acabinet‐levelwingof
thefederalgovernmentthatstillexiststoday.Thebillshiftedthefundingfrom
government‐fundedprojectstosubsidizingprivatelyconstructedlow‐income
housing.Italsocreatedtheprecursortothecurrentrentvoucherprogram.Section
23ofthelegislationallowedlocalhousingauthoritiestoplaceindividualswhowere
onwaitinglistsforpublichousinginprivatelyleasedunits.
Thecurrentvoucherprogram,knownasSection8,comesfromtheHousing
andCommunityDevelopmentActof1974.Thiscreatedsubsidiesforprivately
constructedlow‐incomehousingprojectsaswellastheverypopulartenantbased
voucherprogram.Thisprogramcoversthegapbetween25%ofthefamily’sincome
andthemarketrateoftheunit,allowinglocalhousingauthoritiestoplacefamilies
inprivatelyownedhousing.Thisprogramhasremainedsopopularthatin
Washington,DC,thelocalhousingauthorityclosedthelistin2013indefinitely
(Inglesias93).
In1989,CongressestablishedtheNationalCommissiononSeverely
DistressedPublicHousing.Thecommission’sreportfoundconditionsinseveral
publichousingprojectstobedeplorableandunfitforrenovation,letaloneliving.
FromthiscametheHousingforPeopleEverywhereprogram,morecommonly
knownasHOPEVI.Theprogramwastogivegrantsofupto$50milliontopublic
housingauthoritiesforthecompletedemolitionandreconstructionofhousing
projects.HOPEVIprojectswererequiredtoimplementmixed‐incomehousing,in
whichtheunitswouldbeacombinationofpublichousing,rentsubsidies,and
marketrate.
ThefirstgrantwasgiventotheAtlantaHousingAuthorityin1993.Since
then,96,200publichousingunitshavebeendemolishedandreplacedby107,800
neworrenovatedunits,ofwhich56,800areintendedforthelowest‐income
households.Therehavebeen254HOPEVIRevitalizationgrantsawarded,totaling
over$6.1billion.Fundingfortheprogramceasedin2010whentheObama
administrationunveiledtheChoiceneighborhoodprogramwhichaimstoprovide
cradle‐to‐graduationwraparoundservicesforfamilies.Nevertheless,theideaof
mixed‐incomehousingandtheideologiesofNewUrbanismanddefensiblespace
continuewiththenewprogram.
NewUrbanismanddefensiblespacetheory
ThenewconstructionsweretobebasedontheideologiesofNewUrbanism
anddefensiblespace.Theseideasareadeparturefromthetraditionalconceptions
ofpublichousing,fromthe“GardenCity”varietywithtwoorthreelevelbrick
buildingscenteredaroundemptygrasssquaresorthetall,monotoneapartment
buildingsofthe1960sand70sthatoftendisintegratedintotowersofsqualor.New
Urbanismisamoderndesignmovementthatpromoteswalkableneighborhoods
withwell‐tendedgreenspacesandparks.Theseneighborhoodsincludearangeof
incomes,jobtypes,residences,andcommercialspaces,withthehopethatifthe
projectlooksmorelikeanorganicurbanareaandlesslikeobviousplanned
governmenthousing,theresidentswillfeelmoreownershipandcrimerateswill
decrease.TheCongressforNewUrbanism,theorganizationthatpromotesthis
designconcept,statesintheircharter:
Weadvocatetherestructuringofpublicpolicyanddevelopmentpracticestosupportthe
followingprinciples:neighborhoodsshouldbediverseinuseandpopulation;communities
shouldbedesignedforthepedestrianandtransitaswellasthecar;citiesandtownsshould
beshapedbyphysicallydefinedanduniversallyaccessiblepublicspacesandcommunity
institutions;urbanplacesshouldbeframedbyarchitectureandlandscapedesignthat
celebratelocalhistory,climate,ecology,andbuildingpractice.
Defensiblespacetheorywasdevelopedinthe1970sbyOscarNewman,an
architectandcityplanner.Thetheoryholdsthatsincecrimerateswerehigherin
high‐riseapartmentprojectthanlow‐riseapartments,peoplefeltlesscontrolover
theirsurroundingswhenoccupiedbysomanypeople.Whenpeoplefeelmore
responsibilityandcontrolovertheirhome,theywillworktopreserveboththe
physicalspaceandthesafetyandwellbeingofthecommunity.Additionally,the
theoryholdsthat“certainfeaturesofphysicalsettings,suchasindicationof
territoryandsurveillanceopportunities,canreducecrime”(Ham‐Rowbottom117).
Researchtosupportthistheoryhashadmixedresults,sinceitisdifficulttoisolate
thevariablesthatgointoacriminal’sdecisionmaking.
ThetwograntrecipientsthatwillbeanalyzedinthispaperareNew
ColumbiainPortland,OregonandCapitolQuarterinWashington,D.C.Thesetwo
caseswerechosenbecausetheyweregrantedwithinthesameadministration,come
fromcitiesexperiencessimilargentrificationprocesses,buthadmuchdifferent
crimeanddrugbackgrounds.
NewColumbia
NewColumbiawasoriginallyColumbiaVilla,builtin1943tohousedefense
workersduringWWII.Itwasoriginallycomprisedof400unitsinalow‐density,
suburban‐styledevelopmentwith“curvilinearstreets,manytrees,andopenspace”
(Gibson).Thepublichousingprojectremainedawelcomingplacetolivethroughout
the1960s,referredtobyTheOregonianas“beautiful”(Gibson).Unfortunately,the
influenceofcrackcocaineinthe1980shadnegativeeffectsonthesafetyofthe
neighborhood,nottomentionthepublicperception.
In1993,theDepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopmentgrantedNew
Columbia$34millionforredevelopment.Constructionbeganin2004,although
manyresidentsdeemedtheredevelopmentunnecessary.Oneresidentquotedby
KarenGibsonfoundthatColumbiaVilla“wasn’tbad,itwasjustold”(Gibson).The
developmentwasreadyforlivingby2006andthenumberofunitshadincreased
from460to850.Thepublichousingprojectnowhasbothgovernmentsubsidized
unitsandmarketratehomes,parks,acommunitycenter,alife‐longlearningcenter,
anelementaryschool,aproducemarket,andacoffeeshop.Thesustainable
landscapingelementsmakeitoneofthemostprogressivedevelopmentsinPortland
CapitolQuarter
CapitolQuarterisatwo‐phasedevelopment,incorporatingboththeArthur
CapperprojectsandCarollsburg,formerlyacombinationoflow‐riseapartment
buildingsandtownhomeswithover700subsidizedapartments.CapitolQuarteris
oneofsevenHOPEVIprojectsinWashington,DC.Theprojectbeganin1999and
wasfinishedinthefallof2012.Theprojectoriginallywasonlyexpectedtotake3‐4
years(McKone).Itnowhas770mixedincomeunits,155publichousing,152
project‐basedvoucher,221LowIncomeHousingTaxCredit,140homeownership,
151seniorand40assistedlivingunits.Theentiredevelopment,whichincludesa
seniorresidentialbuilding,anapartmentbuildingexpectedtobefinishedin2015,
andfournewmixed‐incomeapartmentbuildings,isprojectedtohavemorethan
1,500residentialunits.ThisredevelopmentismuchlargerthanNewColumbiaand
involvesmorevariedeconomicandsocialgroups.
Redevelopmentofpublichousingisacostlyandtime‐consuming
undertaking.Sincethefirstgrantwasawardedin1992,HUDhasspentmorethan
$6billiononHOPEVIfundedprojects.WiththepopularityoftheSection8voucher
programalongwiththehistoryofdrugs,violence,andconcentratedpovertyin
subsidizedhousing,itisimportanttoquestionwhetherredevelopmentisworththe
time,effort,andmoney.Additionally,itwouldbemuchlessexpensivetoredevelop
theprojectsintomany‐unit,high‐densitydevelopmentssimilartothosein
WashingtonD.C.Ifthegoalweretohouseasmanypeopleaspossible,smallerunits
inmorecompactbuildingswouldbetheobviouschoice.
Ismixed‐incomehousingasuccessfulmodelforpublichousing?Isitworth
thecost,relocationofresidents,andinabilitytohousealloriginalresidents?
Additionally,betweenthetwocasestudies,whichwasmoresuccessful?Toanswer
thesequestions,Iwilllookatcrime,employment,andpovertyratesbeforeandafter
redevelopment.Iwillassessfromanecdotalevidencewhetherthepublicperception
oftheprojectsispositivelyaffectedafterredevelopment.Betweenthetwocases,I
willcomparereturnrateoforiginalresidentsaswellasnumberofmarketrateunits
soldtoassesswhethertheprojectsareseenasdesirablelivingsituations.
Findingsanddiscussion
Thesuccessofapublichousingprojectdependsonamultitudeofdifferent
factors,thusisolatingwheresuccessisderivedfromisadifficultfeat.However,
someaspectsoftheprojectsmayprovidecluestothestandardoflivingofits
residents.TheeffectivenessoftheHOPEVIprogramitselfhasmoreclearwaysto
gaugeeffectiveness.
Costofredevelopment
TheCapitolQuarterprojectwasinitiallygranted$34.9millionthroughHOPE
VIforredevelopmentin2001.Withadditionsfromprivateandpublicinvestors,the
grantgrewtoover$750million,makingitoneofthelargestredevelopmentprojects
inthecountry(Cisneros48).Incorporatingprivateinvestorsgrewthesizeofthe
projectbutalsolengthenedthetimetocompletion.TheprograminPortlandwas
giventhesameamountfromHUD,butadditionalinvestmentsgrewthebudgetto
only$150million.Thisisamuchsmallerredevelopmentinsizeandscope.New
Columbia’s850unitscostapproximately$176,500perunitwhileinDC,perunit
costwas$500,000.However,whilebothprojectsincludeacommunitycenter,
parks,andotherservices,CapitolQuarteralsoincludesaschoolandaseniorcenter
(withtheaccompanyingmedicalnecessities).
Relocationandreturnofresidents
RelocationofresidentsatCaptiolQuarterbeganin2003,withthe
expectationtoreturnin2006.Mostresidenceswerenotreadyformove‐inuntil
2012.Manyresidentswererelocatedforthedurationoftheredevelopmentand
chosenottoreturntotheirprevioushomesbecauseithadsimplytakentoolong
(Popkin).CapitolQuarterboaststhatitisthefirstHOPEVIredevelopmentinthe
countrytoprovideone‐for‐onereplacementofdemolishedpublichousingunits,
althoughthisstatementdoesnotentirelyringtrue.Whilethenumberofhousing
unitshasincreased,thenumberoffullysubsidizedpublichousingunitshas
decreased.ThisleavesformerresidentstorelyontheoversaturatedSection8
voucherprogramtobeabletomovebacktotheirhome.
InPortland,thesituationisthesame.Whilethenumberofunitsincreased
from400to850,only560aresubsidizedandofthose,only267ofthosearepublic
housing.Thisprovesfrustratingfortenantswhowishtoreturnonlytofindthere
arenotenoughunits,ortheymustpayahigherratethantheywerebefore.
Relocationisespeciallydifficultonfamilies.InPortland,46%offamilieshad
tochangeschoolsonerelocated(Gibson17).InWashington,DC,thisnumberis
nearlyimpossibletotracksincetheschoolsystemisalotterysystemandmost
studentsdonotattendtheirneighborhoodschool.InPortland,astudydoneby
KarenGibsonaskedrelocatedresidentsofNewColumbiaabouttheirabilitytopay
rentintheirnewhomesthroughtheSection8program,andwhileonly9%saidno,
24%werenotsure.Section8isalsomuchlessstablehousingandfamiliesmightbe
requiredtomovemorethanonce.Only38%offamiliessaidtheywouldwantto
returntoNewColumbiaaftertheredevelopmentwasfinished,citingstability,
specificallywithchangingschools.Anotherlesstangibleissuewithrelocationisthe
lossofcommunity.ThisisespeciallyimportantinPortland,whichis
overwhelminglywhite.TheAfricanAmericancommunitiesinNorthandNortheast
Portlandhavetightbondsandmovingawayfromthatcanbedetrimentalto
standardofliving.
Residentsthatdidnotwanttoreturnofferedreasonsincludingcrimerates
andtheperception.OneresidenttoldGibsonshedidnotwanttogobackbecause
“overallmychildrenarehappiernow‐‐‐theynolongergetteasedorputdown
becauseofwheretheylive”(Gibson19).Otherscitedsimplythatmovingisdifficult
andcostly.Overall,Gibsonfoundthatthoseresidentswhowererelocatedtoa
neighborhoodtheydesiredwerethemostsatisfiedwiththerelocationprocess.
Marketrateunits
NewColumbiareportsthatallmarketrateunitshavebeensold(Popkin).
CapitolQuarterreportsthattheyonlyhavetwomarketrateunitsthathavenotbeen
sold,howevertwooftheapartmentbuildingsinthedevelopmentthatinclude
marketrateunitshavenotfinishedconstruction.Thisshowsthatresidentsinboth
citiesfindthedevelopmentssuitableplacestolive.
CrimeRatesandPovertyLevels
OnJune30th,2014,amanwasshotandkilledinNewColumbia.Thiswasthe
firstmurderintheneighborhoodsince1994.Afterthecrackcocaineepidemicofthe
1980s,NorthPortlandsawagradualdecreaseincrimeuntil2012,whentherewere
63gangrelatedviolentcrimes.Thatnumberincreasedto116in2013(Gibson).This
uptickincrimeechoestherestofPortlandbutstillhasresidentsconcerned.In
Washington,DC,crimehasdecreasedalloverthecityinthelast20years.
PerceptionsofcrimeinCapitolQuartershowthatithasdecreased;“Twenty‐two
(22)percentreportedthattheareawasmuchsafer,andanother44percent
reportedthatitwassomewhatsafer.One‐thirdofneighborhoodresidentssaidthat
neighborhoodcrimewasunchanged.”In2000,61%ofresidentsatArthur
Capper/Carollsburgwerebelowthepovertylevel(CrimeIncident).In2010,therate
wasdownto50%,whichisstillveryhigh.InNewColumbia,thepovertyratein
2010was43%,onlya1%increasesince2000(Gibson).
Conclusion
Withthosestatisticsinmind,itishardtoconcludewhetherornotmixed
incomehousingisaneffectivemodelforpublichousing.Inthelongterm,itmay
leadtobetterupkeepofthedevelopmentssincemorerevenueiscominginand
thereismoreincentiveformaintenance.Thecrimeratesinbothprojectsseemto
echothecrimeratesofthegreatercity,whichwillmostlikelycontinue.Forthe
amountofmoneythatisspentontheseprograms,itseemsasthoughtheprivate
investmentthatgreatlyboostedbothredevelopments’budgetshadthegreatest
effect.ThistacticshouldbefurtherexploredandusedbyHUD.Moreresearchon
mixedincomehousingprojectssuchasNewColumbiaandCapitolQuartershould
bedonetoseeiftheeconomicdiversityhasalastingeffectonthecrimeand
employmentratesofresidents.
Asforthecomparisonbetweenthetwoprojects,basedontheamountof
moneyspentperunitandthelengthoftimebetweendemolitionandreinstatement
offormerresidents,NewColumbiawasamoreeffectiveproject.Thesmaller
redevelopmentwasperhapsakeyinthiscase.WhilecrimeratesinWashington,DC
havedecreased,thesenseofcommunityinPortlandisstronger.AstheHOPEVI
programmovesintotheChoiceNeighborhoodprogram,afocusonrelocation
services,one‐for‐onereplacementoffullysubsidizedunits,andshorter
redevelopmenttimeswillmakeforthemostsuccessfulprojects.
AnnotatedBibliography
VonHoffman,Alexander."HistoryLessonsforToday’sHousingPolicyThePolitical
ProcessesofMakingLow‐IncomeHousingPolicy."(n.d.):n.pag.Print
VonHoffmanrelatesthelatestmajorchangeinhousingpolicytothecreation
offederalhousing,drawingcomparisonsandcontrastsintermsoftheeconomicand
politicallandscapes.Thetoneofthearticlesuggestsitwaswrittenbyastudent,and
thusthereliabilitymustbequestioned.
Popkin,SusanJ.,BruceKatz,MaryK.Cunningham,KarenD.Brown,Jeremy
Gustafson,andMargaryA.Turner.ADecadeofHOPEVI:ResearchFindings
andPolicyChallenges.ADecadeofHOPE.UrbanInstitute,May2004.Web.
20Feb.2015.
ThisisaveryeducationalsourcethatevaluatestheentireHOPEVIprogram.
Thecontributor’sconclusionisthattheprogramisinfactsucceedingandwhileno
solutionisperfect,HOPEVIisthemosteffectiveprogramtothisdate.Fundedbythe
UrbanInstituteandtheBrookingsInstitute,twowell‐respectedthinktanks,this
articlecanbetrustedtobereliableandnon‐biased.
Levy,Diane,andMarkWoolley."RelocationIsNotEnoughEmploymentBarriers
amongHOPEVIFamilies."MetropolitanHousingandCommunitiesCenter.
UrbanInstitute,4June2007.Web.23Feb.2015.
AnotherarticlefromtheUrbanInstitute.Thissourcediscussesemployment
barriersthatfamiliesfacewhenlivinginpublichousing,suchaspoorhealthanda
historyofunemployment.Themethodologyusedincomingtotheseconclusionsis
clearlyoutlinedandthesponsoroftheresearchisatrustedsource.
Gallagher,Megan,andBeataBajaj."MovingOn:BenefitsandChallengesofHOPEVI
forChildren."MetropolitanHousingandCommunitiesCenter.Urban
Institute,4June2007.Web.23Feb.2015.
Thissourceisadditionalresearchfromthesamepublicationasabove.The
authorssuggestthatthevoucherprogramcanhavepositiveaffectsforchildrenand
teensbymovingthemintoareaswithmorestablefamilies,whileothersmaynever
feelacceptedbytheirpeersfromadifferentsocialclass.
Cahill,Meagan,SamanthaS.Lowry,andP.Mitchell.Downey.Movin'Out:Crime
DisplacementandHUD'sHOPEVIInitiative.Washington,D.C.:Urban
Institute,JusticePolicyCenter,2011.ResearchReport.UrbanInstitute,2001.
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Thissourceaddressesthequestionofwhethercrimeistrulyloweredbythe
HOPEVIprogramorsimplymovedtootherpartsofthecity.Thisisanotherarticle
fromthereputableUrbanInstitute.
McInelly,Mary."TransportationReformattheScaleoftheBlock,theStreet,andthe
Building."2006CNUTransportationSummit.UrbanDesign,2006.Web.24
Feb.2015.
Thisisareportpresentedatatransportationconferencethatdiscussesthe
effectivenessoftransportationreformattheNewColumbiaHOPEVIsitein
Portland,OR.Theauthorconcludesthatthereformshavebeeneffective.Sincethe
workwaspresentedatUniversityofColoradoBoulder,itcanbeconcludedthatitis
ascholarlyworkandthusreliable.
Cisneros,Henry,andLoraEngdahl.FromDespairtoHope:HopeVIandtheNew
PromiseofPublicHousinginAmerica'sCities.Washington,D.C.:Brookings
Institution,2010.Print.
ThisbookevaluatesallHopeVIprograms,includingNewColumbiain
Portland,OregonandArthurCapperinWashington,D.C.Itisathorough
investigationoftheprogramandit’sprosandcons.TheBrookingsInstituteisa
well‐respectedsourceforsocialsciencescholarlywork.
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Management:DothePublicHousingAuthoritiesHavetheFlexibilityThey
NeedtoMeettheChangingDemandsofthe21stCentury?:Hearing.N.p.:
DIANE,2006.Print.
Thisisaprimarydocumentthatisarecordofacongressionalhearingon
PublicHousingAuthoritiesandtheHOPEVIprogram.Itprovidesinsightintothe
relationshipbetweentheDepartmentofHousingandUrbandevelopmentandthe
localauthorities.
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ThissourcecontainscrimeincidentdatafortheArthurCapperdevelopment
inWashington,D.C.ThisinformationishelpfulinconcludingwhethertheHOPEVI
programiseffectiveinreducingcrimerates.Theresearchwasdonewith
cooperationfromtheDepartmentofJustice,andsotheaccuracyofthedatacanbe
trusted.
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AmericanUrbanism.N.p.:CornellUP,2013.Print.
HackworthoutlinesthebasictenetsoftheNewUrbanismconceptincity
design.NewUrbanismwashighlyinfluentialinthedesignandimplementationof
theHOPEVIdevelopments,withitsfocusonwidestreets,greenways,separate
buildings,andcommunityspaces.
Jacobs,Jane.TheDeathandLifeofGreatAmericanCities.Vintage,1992.Print.
Thisbookwasoriginallywrittenin1972andisconsideredthemost
prominentworkoncityorganizationandthesociologyofneighborhoodsafetyand
communitycreation.Theauthorproposesthatthemoreownershipresidentsfeel
overtheirneighborhood,thelesscrimewilloccur.Spacesmustbeopenandvisible
bymanydifferentsightlinesfromprivateresidences.Traditionandrootsina
neighborhoodareimportanttocommunitycreationaswell
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ThisistheinitialreportdonebytheNationalCommissiononSeverely
DistressedPublicHousingthatpromptedtheDepartmentofHousingandUrban
DevelopmenttocreatetheHOPEVIprogram.Theyfoundthatthemajorityof
familieslivinginthe86,000unitsofpublichousingsufferedinphysical,emotional,
social,andeconomicdistress.
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PublicHousingDemolitionsInChicago,"AmericanEconomicReview,2004.
Web.1Apr.2015.
ThisstudycommissionedbytheNationalBureauofEconomicResearch
foundthatchildreninpublichousingcomparedtothosewhousethevoucher
programtorelocatetodifferentneighborhoodshavethesameeducational
achievements.Thisisgoodnewsforthepublichousingprogramsbecauseit
supportstheideathatpublichousingcanstillbeapositiveprogram,ifotheraspects
areimproved.
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RoadMapforTransformation.DepartmentofHousingandUrban
Development,2010.Web.2Apr.2015.
2010wastheyearthattheHOPEVIprogramchangedtotheChoice
Neighborhoodprogram.ChoiceNeighborhoodsbuildonthefundingstructureof
HOPEVItoincludeothersocialservices,includingeducation,healthcare,and
employmentservices.
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sincethe1960sbroughtwhitefamiliesouttothesuburbs.Rothsteinarguesthat“de
facto”segregationbroughtaboutbymarketanddemographicforcesisamyth.He
arguesthatitisinsteadapurposefulproductofpublicpolicy.
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housingprogram.Itexplainsthedifferentactorsintheprocess,includingthe
DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment,nonprofits,andpreservation
efforts.Theauthorarguesthatwhileotherdomesticissuessuchashealthcare,
energy,transportation,andeducationarewidelydiscussedinthenational
conversation,publichousingisavoidedbecausemostAmericansarewellhoused.
Thusithasbeenasecondarygoalinbothpolicydevelopmentandfunding.
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theoryandthepolice:assessingthevulnerabilityofresidencestoburglary."
JournalofEnvironmentalPsychology19.2(1999):117‐129.
Thisisastudyofdefensiblespacetheory,firstintroducedbyOscar
Newmann.HOPEVIprojectsuseddefensiblespacetheoryasabasisfortheirdesign
concepts,inordertoreducecrimeandincreaseasenseofcommunity.Thetwo
territorialfactorsthetheoryproposesareactualandsymbolicbarriers,actualbeing
physicalbarrierstoaccessandsymbolicbeingcharacteristicsofahomethat
indicatepersonalproperty.Thissignalstothecriminalthatthehomeownerscare
aboutthepropertyandarepreparedtodefendit.Thestudyfoundthatactual
barriers,tracesofoccupancy,androadsurveillabilityprotectedthemostagainst
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ProjectoftheOregonHistoricalSociety,n.d.Web.22Apr.2015.
Dr.GibsonisaprofessoratPortlandStateUniversitywhohasdoneextensive
researchonpublichousing,specificallyNewColumbia.Thisisaresearchprojectshe
didconcerningtherelocationoffamiliesintheColumbiaVilladevelopment.