Abstract
Followership as Perceived by Leaders in the Hospitality Industry
by
James H. Schindler
MS, Troy State University, 1989
BS, University of South Alabama, 1977
Doctoral Proposal Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
Walden University
April 2012
Abstract
Traditionally, the staff of professional development programs devote little time and
attention to developing effective follower skills because most organizational leaders
assume employees know how to follow. Followership skills are the foundation of
leadership. The problem addressed in this study is the lack of knowledge midlevel
hospitality managers displayed concerning the importance of the followership traits that
translate to good leadership skills. The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological
study was to explore the phenomenon of followership traits that translate to good
leadership skills. The central research questions were designed to explore the lived
experiences and informed perceptions of midlevel managers in the hospitality industry
regarding the followership traits that translate to leadership skills. The lived experiences
of midlevel hospitality managers relating to leadership and followership traits were the
conceptual framework of the study. The interview question data were analyzed using
Moustakas’ modified van Kaam methodology. The findings indicated (a) an affiliation
exists between organizational success and followers learning their positions, displaying
initiative by learning, and providing support for the leaders; (b) core competencies and
skills of followers are interpersonal skills; and (c) the relationship between followers and
leaders was based on trust, teamwork and the role of followers and leaders are
intertwined. The study contributes to positive social change by providing deeper
understanding of the phenomenon of followership, which might provide insights into the
improvement of methods to gain understanding of the relationship between leader and
follower, which will improve organizational success.
Followership as Perceived by Leaders in the Hospitality Industry
by
James H. Schindler
MS, Troy State University, 1989
BS, University of South Alabama, 1977
Doctoral Proposal Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Business Administration
Walden University
April 2012
Dedication
I could not have completed this research effort without encouragement and the
assistance of numerous supporters. I dedicate this doctoral study to those individuals.
First, Dr. Richard Gray, Ph.D. who inspired me to continue my education and to believe
in my capabilities; his determination and scholarly acumen is a standard to match.
Additionally, I dedicate this doctoral study to the memory of my parents, Dr. Louis E.
Schindler, DVM and Angeline Hays Schindler, also to, William (Bill) Duke, LtCol,
USAF, (retired) a friend and mentor, whose efforts on my behalf and guidance have
helped me succeed personally and professionally.
Acknowledgments
I acknowledge the love and support of my wife, Ruthann Schindler and thank her
for the patience and tolerance that have sustained me as I worked to complete this
journey. I certainly appreciate Dr. Charlene Dunfee, my doctoral study chair, and
acknowledge and thank her for guidance and encouragement throughout this process and
for her critique and input that improved the final product. I am also very appreciative of
friends and colleagues who provided encouragement. I am also especially grateful for
and acknowledge the enlightening contribution of the research participants who allowed
me to share their experiences, without whom this study would not have been possible.
Table of Contents
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... iv
Section 1: Foundation of the Study......................................................................................1
Background of the Problem ...........................................................................................1
Problem Statement .........................................................................................................3
Purpose Statement ..........................................................................................................4
Nature of the Study ........................................................................................................5
Research Question .........................................................................................................6
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................7
Definition of Terms........................................................................................................8
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations................................................................8
Assumptions............................................................................................................ 8
Limitations .............................................................................................................. 9
Delimitations ........................................................................................................... 9
Significance of the Study .............................................................................................10
Reduction of Gaps................................................................................................. 10
Implications for Social Change ............................................................................. 10
A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature ..............................................11
Leadership ............................................................................................................. 12
Followership ......................................................................................................... 28
Hospitality Management ....................................................................................... 38
Transition and Summary ..............................................................................................41
i
Section 2: The Project ........................................................................................................42
Purpose Statement ........................................................................................................42
Role of the Researcher .................................................................................................43
Participants ...................................................................................................................44
Research Method and Design ......................................................................................44
Method .................................................................................................................. 45
Research Design.................................................................................................... 46
Population and Sampling .............................................................................................46
Data Collection ............................................................................................................47
Instruments ............................................................................................................ 47
Data Collection Technique ................................................................................... 48
Data Organization Techniques .............................................................................. 48
Data Analysis Technique .............................................................................................48
Reliability and Validity ................................................................................................49
Reliability.............................................................................................................. 49
Validity ................................................................................................................. 49
Transition and Summary ..............................................................................................49
Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change ..................51
Overview of Study .......................................................................................................51
Presentation of the Findings.........................................................................................54
Outcomes That Address Research Question 1: Participants’ Experience ............ 54
Conclusions That Address Research Question 1 .................................................. 64
ii
Outcomes That Address Research Question 2: Participants’ Perception ............. 65
Conclusions That Address Research Question 2 .................................................. 74
Emerging Themes ................................................................................................. 75
Applications to Professional Practice ..........................................................................77
Implications for Social Change ....................................................................................78
Recommendations for Action ......................................................................................79
Recommendations for Further Study ...........................................................................80
Reflections ...................................................................................................................81
Summary and Study Conclusions ................................................................................82
References ..........................................................................................................................84
Appendix A: Letter of Invitation .......................................................................................99
Appendix B: Informed Consent .......................................................................................100
Appendix C: Interview Questions ....................................................................................102
Curriculum Vitae .............................................................................................................103
iii
List of Tables
Table 1. Experience as it Relates to the Role of Followership in Own Organization ...... 55
Table 2. Experience as It Relates to Core Competencies and Skills of Followers in
General ........................................................................................................................ 57
Table 3. Experience as It Relates to the Development of Followers in General .............. 58
Table 4. Experience as It Relates to the Relationship Between Followers and Leaders in
General ........................................................................................................................ 59
Table 5. Any Additional Relevant Factors That Affect Followership in General Based on
Experience................................................................................................................... 61
Table 6. Experience as It Relates to the Influence of Followership in General................ 63
Table 7. Perception of the Role of Followership in Your Organization ........................... 66
Table 8. Perception of Core Competencies and Skills of Successful Followers in Your
Organization ................................................................................................................ 67
Table 9. Perception of the Development of Followers in Your Organization. ................. 69
Table 10. Perception of the Relationship Between Followers and Leaders in Your
Organization ................................................................................................................ 70
Table 11. Perception of Additional Relevant Factors Affecting Followership in Your
Organization ................................................................................................................ 72
Table 12. Perception of the Influence of Followership on the Organization’s Success ... 73
iv
1
Section 1: Foundation of the Study
Both good leaders and good followers exhibit some of the same characteristics
(Kelley, 2008). Both think for themselves, both are active in the leadership process, and
both exhibit positive energy. Individuals who display these characteristics are often
referred to as “leaders in disguise” (Kelley, 2008, p. 9). The current study involved
developing a thematic awareness of specific followership traits that translate into good
leadership skills. The lack of clear followership trait analysis has negatively constrained
professional development programs that include a reliance only on leadership skills
(Agho, 2009).
Background of the Problem
Traditionally, the staff of professional development programs devote little time
and attention to developing effective follower skills because most organizational leaders
erroneously assume that employees know how to follow (Agho, 2009). An
understanding of followership characteristics will enable leaders to “develop other great
leaders one follower at a time” (Adair, 2008, p. 137). Followership skills are part of
leadership skills (Adair, 2008), and followership skills are the foundation of leadership.
To identify followers with good followership skills, who are potentially good leaders it is
necessary to capitalize on the characteristics and skills within the leadership process
(Adair, 2008).
Bjugstad, Thach, Thompson, and Morris (2006) noted the negative connotation of
the term followership is an explanation for the lack of research on the topic of
followership. Followership is often associated with negative terms such as “passive,
2
weak, and conforming” (Bjugstad et al., 2006, p. 304). However, the characteristics good
followers exhibit, such as being able to think for themselves, being independent, having
positive energy, and being innovative, are the same characteristics expected from good
leaders (Kelley, 2008). In this study, I attempted to gain understanding of the
phenomenon of followership as it relates to the participants. Midlevel managers in the
hospitality industry in the southeastern United States along the coast of the Gulf of
Mexico comprised the participant sample in the study for two reasons. First, the
managers were more likely to have experienced the phenomenon of followership during
the situations caused by hurricanes Katrina and Ivan and the subsequent rebuilding of
economies and properties (Moss, Ryan, & Moss, 2008; Smith, 2010). The second reason
for selecting midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the coast of the Gulf of
Mexico was hospitality is a relatively new academic discipline (Ottenbacher, Harrington,
& Parsa, 2009) and has had limited exposure to research.
Kellerman (2007) noted good leadership is the subject of courses, workshops,
books, and articles, but the limited research and writing on subordinates contains
explanations of followers’ behaviors in terms of leaders’ development rather than
followers’ development. Followership is the “ability to effectively follow the directives
and support the efforts of a leader to maximize a structured organization” (Bjugstad et al.,
2006, p. 306). Most scholarly books in print on the subject are about good leadership;
“the ratio of leadership to followership books was 120:1” (Bjugstad et al., 2006, p. 306).
The lack of scholarly work has frequently caused leaders to overlook followership as a
3
necessary part of a successful organization (Bearden, 2008). The current study involved
demonstrating the followership characteristics that may translate to good leadership.
An increased focus on the characteristics of followership may lead to a greater
understanding of the leadership process and the characteristics of leaders that will result
in better organizational performance (Bearden, 2008). Increasing awareness of
followership processes in organizational leaders may lead to improved leadership and
improved organizational performance (Dixon, 2009). Improved leadership is the direct
result of improved followership. Individuals within an organization transition between
the role of follower and the role of leader continually, and the success of organizations
depends upon performance in both roles (Bearden, 2008; Dixon, 2009). Kelley (2008)
noted followership and leadership are “complementary, not competitive paths to
organizational contribution. . . . We must have great leaders and great followers” (p. 41).
The current study involved identifying specific followership traits that translate directly
to leadership skills.
Problem Statement
If organizational members are more aware of followership processes, they will be
prepared to participate in and support the leadership of their organization (Dixon &
Westbrook, 2003). The general problem is the failure to identify followership traits that
translate to leadership skills has resulted in a lack of advancement into leadership
positions for followers (Adair, 2008; Agho, 2009; Blanchard, Wellbourne, Gilmore, &
Bullock, 2009). Succession plans exist for senior positions and do not include the
leadership potential of middle management (Brant, Dooley, & Iman, 2008). A
4
commitment to professional development of managers with high potential results in
commitment, trust, and improved retention (Brant et al., 2008). The specific focus of the
study was to explore the followership traits that translate to good leader traits. An
investigation of leaders employing a phenomenological methodology was necessary. The
study involved examining the lived experiences and informed perceptions of 20 midlevel
hospitality managers located in the southeastern United States along the coast of the Gulf
of Mexico to provide thematic awareness of the phenomenon of followership
characteristics that translate to good leadership skills.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the
phenomenon of followership characteristics that translate to good leadership skills. In a
phenomenological study, the researcher “describes the meaning of the lived experiences
for several individuals about a concept of the phenomenon” (Creswell, 2007, p. 51). The
phenomenological research design was appropriate to the qualitative methodology
because the method enabled the researcher to gain access to the respondents’ lived
experiences by conducting in-depth interviews. The focus of the study was exploring the
lived experiences and the informed perceptions of a purposeful sample of 20 midlevel
managers from the hospitality industry. For the purpose of the study, midlevel managers
were the managers below the top manager and above the first level supervisory positions
(Wooldridge, Schmid, & Floyd, 2008). The specific participant population of the study
was 20 midlevel managers from the hospitality industry along the Gulf Coast. The
participants were in the southeastern United States along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico.
5
The population was limited to midlevel hospitality managers in organizations with more
than 100 and less than 400 employees. The data from the study might contribute to social
change by expanding the knowledge of leadership from a followership perspective by
exploring insights into how midlevel managers in the hospitality industry perceive
followership. The results of the study contribute to business profitability by increasing
internal recruiting and succession planning.
Nature of the Study
The current qualitative phenomenological study involved employing
semistructured interviews to explore the participants’ lived and perceived experiences
with the phenomenon of followership traits that translate to good leadership. The
qualitative phenomenological research method and design were appropriate for the study
because the study may document existing knowledge by adding rich detail about
leadership and may help to understand leadership from the perspective of the actors
(Ospina, 2004). The contextual factors of a phenomenon allow a researcher to observe
and describe the subjective factors that affect a given situation (Conger, 1998; Ospina,
2004). Other research methods were not appropriate to obtain the requisite data because
leadership scholars had sought answers to questions about leadership culture and had
found quantitative methods did not adequately explain the phenomenon (Olivares,
Peterson, & Hess, 2007; Ospina, 2004). The qualitative phenomenological study
involved identifying themes and general statements developed by what the participants
experienced in relation to followership, whereas a quantitative study would have included
a focus on numbers.
6
A quantitative method is appropriate when using an objective scientific approach
with defined collected numerical data and statistical analysis (Creswell, 2009), but was
not appropriate for the current study. The process of collecting numeric data on
followership was inappropriate because followership consists of nonquantifiable
attributes (Kelley, 2008). Numbers could not adequately describe the phenomenon of
followership because the study required describing the phenomenon from the
perspectives of observers.
Other qualitative methods were not appropriate for the study. Grounded theory is
a strategy in which researchers seek to develop a theory about a specific process and was
not appropriate for the study (Creswell, 2009). Ethnography was not appropriate because
ethnographers study a cultural group over a long period of time (Creswell, 2009). Other
research methods would not have been appropriate to obtain the requisite data because
researchers applying these methods would not be able to take into account the human
experience associated with the phenomenological research method (Creswell, 2009). The
qualitative phenomenological research method was appropriate to the study because the
study involved examining the data of the perceived and lived experiences of the
participants (Olivares et al., 2007) as they pertained to the phenomenon of followership.
Research Question
The focus of the qualitative phenomenological study was to conduct interviews of
20 midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the Gulf Coast and explore their
lived experiences and informed perceptions of followership traits as they related to
leadership skills. The research questions for the study follow:
7
1. What are the lived experiences of midlevel managers from the hospitality
industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership traits that translate to
leadership skills?
2. What are the informed perceptions of midlevel managers in the hospitality
industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership traits that translate to
leadership skills?
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of the research study was to explore the lived
experiences of the participants as midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the
Gulf Coast. The conceptual framework of the study emerged from the lived experiences
relating to the leadership and followership traits of the participants. The study involved
exploring the conceptual framework from a systems perspective. The study was
grounded in systems theory (Checkland, 1999). Systems thinking originated as a
generalization of ideas about biology in the first half of the 20th century (Checkland,
1999). In the late 1940s, researchers extrapolated these generalizations of biological
ideas to include whole systems of any type (von Bertalanffy, 1968). Systems theory
models can provide a means to collect data, provide for the analysis of the data, and
predict behaviors (Checkland, 1999).
Critchlow (2005) used systems theory to determine the wholeness or
completeness of participants’ careers and education, as well as interactions with other
individuals. This combination allowed Critchlow to explore the factors the participants
considered vital in their career development as community college presidents. Systems
8
theory was applicable to the study because the study involved researching each
participant’s career and interpersonal interactions with followers and forming
conclusions.
Definition of Terms
Followership is the ability of individuals to follow the instructions of their
superior to achieve organizational goals (Agho, 2009).
Hospitality industry is a generic title for different areas of the hotel and restaurant
industries (Ottenbacher et al., 2009).
Leadership is “an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend
real changes and outcomes that reflect their shared purposes” (Daft, 2011, p. 5).
Midlevel manager is a broad term generally understood to be defined as a
manager below the top manager and above the first level supervisory positions
(Wooldridge et al., 2008) with at least one direct report and has been in the current
position for at least 1 year.
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
Assumptions
Respondents of the study understood leadership and the characteristics associated
with successful leadership. Asking questions in the interview to determine leadership
knowledge and skill served to overcome the lack of specific knowledge (Creswell, 2009).
Another assumption was a significant difference would not exist in the responses of men
and women nor would the age and experience of the respondents have any effect on the
study. Another assumption was the lived experiences of the managers would provide
9
information about their direct accounts of the perceived factors that affect followership in
their organizations (Ospina, 2004).
Limitations
Limitations indicate the potential weaknesses of a study that could affect the
results (Creswell, 2003). Limiting the scope of the research to 20 participants was to
manage the data collected for analysis. Possible weaknesses of the current study were the
age, gender, and experience level of the respondents. All these combined could have had
an effect on their understandings of the concepts of leadership and followership. Another
potential weakness of the study could have been the educational background and field of
study of the respondents. An additional possible limitation was the honesty of the
respondents when they provided information.
Delimitations
Researchers need to identify delimitations to narrow the scope of a research study
(Creswell, 2003). The scope of the current research was to provide a clear and concise
description of the characteristics of exemplary followership. The population was limited
to midlevel hospitality managers in hotels with more than 100 and less than 400
employees. The reader will make a determination whether the results of the potential
research findings could be transferable to other types of organizations. All interviews
were voluntary. The members of each organization who may have consented to an
interview were included.
10
Significance of the Study
Reduction of Gaps
Leadership research indicates the follower is a passive element and not relevant
when considering leadership (Avolio, 2007). The study involved developing patterns of
information demonstrating whether followership is vital to leadership. The study also
involved searching for information that would aid in thematic awareness of the idea that
to lead, one must know how to follow. Adair (2008) contended, “Followership is not a
part of leadership—leadership is a part of followership” (p. 138). Leaders in business
may use the knowledge and information gained to aid them in developing leadership
programs within their respective organizations. Individuals taught to understand the
nature of followership will be better prepared to become the leaders of the future within
their organizations. Organizational leaders spend 80% of their training time on 20% of
the organization: leadership (Adair, 2008). Conversely, organizational leaders spend
20% their time on the followers (Adair, 2008). Dixon (2008) contended American
leaders are preoccupied with leadership and leadership development. The current
research helps to eliminate the gap between leadership and followership and provide
information that can be developed and added to all levels of the leadership curriculum.
Implications for Social Change
The study serves to expand the knowledge of leadership from a followership
perspective by exploring insights into how midlevel managers in the hospitality industry
perceive followership. Adair (2008) noted researchers should study leadership and
followership in concert because a crossover exists between them. The information and
11
knowledge gained from the envisioned study should be applicable beyond leadership and
followership. Agho (2009) purported followership is an important trait of one’s
character. Agho also noted followership “has remained an undervalued and
underappreciated concept among management development practitioners and
researchers” (p. 159). The information gained from the study improved the
understanding of followership and the characteristics of a good follower. The research
expanded the understanding of the process of leadership and the characteristics and
behaviors leaders at all levels of business should exhibit. Identifying the characteristics
of followership has the potential to allow for a better method of identifying those who are
best suited for leadership training. The training may improve leadership at all levels of
an organization. The information gained may also allow for the development of training
programs emphasizing specific followership traits that translate directly to leadership
skills.
A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature
A literature review should include a framework to identify the importance of a
study and establish a benchmark for comparing results with the results of other studies
(Creswell, 2009). The literature reviewed provides background and definition for
leadership as well as followership. By analyzing scholarly journal articles and texts, I
provide a basis and framework to study the depth and scope of the phenomenon of
followership. The literature reviewed will include leadership theory, followership theory,
and hospitality management. The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was
to explore the followership characteristics that translate to good leadership. The research
12
questions for the study are as follows: What are the lived experiences of midlevel
managers from the hospitality industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership
traits that translate to leadership skills? What are the informed perceptions of midlevel
managers in the hospitality industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership traits
that translate to leadership skills?
Leadership
To achieve performance benefits, proactive employees seek to build strong
networks with those who have the influence and resources to succeed (Thompson, 2005).
Proactive employees seek to build a social environment that will lead to their own
success. In administrative situations, a proactive personality may benefit the
effectiveness of proactive employees as they will seek solutions to organizational
problems. Employees with proactive personalities would be more likely to be selfstarters and take the initiative to begin projects without cues from supervisors to benefit
the organization (Thompson, 2005).
The current leadership models are effective for top down organizational
paradigms (Uhl-Bien, Marion, & McKelvey, 2007) but are inadequate for application in a
knowledge oriented organization. A need exists to distinguish between leaders and
leadership (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007); leadership is the product of adaptive outcomes and the
leader is the individual in charge who influences the outcomes. Leadership in a
knowledge based organization entails leadership viewed not from an individual state but
from a more complex adaptive systems approach (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007). Uhl-Bien et al.
(2007) developed a framework for leadership that encompasses three functions: adaptive,
13
administrative, and enabling. The proximal source of change in an organization is
adaptive leadership, and the role of enabling leadership is to foster the circumstances that
will allow for adaptive leadership (Uhl-Bien et al., 2007).
Combinations of traits and attributes, rather than being additive, are independent
single traits and more likely to predict leadership ability (Zaccaro, 2007). Leader
attributes are cross situational in establishing the stability of leadership performance. The
cross situational situation is critical in the explanation of leadership behavior. Zaccaro
(2004, as cited in Zaccaro, 2007) defined leader traits as “coherent and integrated patterns
of personal characteristics, reflecting a range of individual differences, which foster
consistent leadership effectiveness across a variety of group and organizational
situations” (pp. 7-8).
A leader’s analysis of the followers in an organization relates to the how the
followers identify with the organization (Van Dick, Hirst, Grojean, & Wieseke, 2007).
How satisfied followers are with their circumstances as followers and their willingness to
perform in an exemplary manner determines follower identity with the organization. The
leader who stimulates a follower to analyze and look at an organization in terms of the
group encourages followers toward feeling, thinking, and acting on behalf of the group’s
norms. Social identity aspects of leadership have focused on the influence leaders exert
toward followers to increase self-efficacy, commitment, and performance (Van Dick et
al., 2007). Leaders are members of the group, and such identification serves as a
motivator to act on behalf of the group’s interest. A leader who strongly identifies with
14
his or her organization may use socialization procedures to develop the organization
specific role of the follower (Van Dick et al., 2007).
Researchers should address questions such as whether leaders are born not made,
what constitutes leadership effectiveness, and in what context different forms of
leadership will emerge (Avolio, 2007). The argument about what constitutes leadership
should indicate the importance of followers (Avolio, 2007), and in this context, most
leadership research indicates a follower is passive or nonexistent. The leader–member
exchange theory identifies the relationship between leaders and followers, and the
exchange has a bearing on the outcomes achieved (Avolio, 2007). The exchange
between leader and follower is the result of the organizational climate in which they find
themselves.
Carson, Tesluk, and Marrone (2007) conceptualized leadership in relation to the
strength of influence or the source of influence. Shared leadership or authority reaches
team members rather than being collected into a single leader. The pattern of emerging
influence in teams is the increase of the teams’ internal leadership networks (Carson et
al., 2007). A leadership network includes those individuals who rely on others for
leadership within the team. Team empowerment leads to shared leadership because team
members exercise influence (Carson et al., 2007), and shared leadership leads to greater
empowerment depending upon the stage of team development.
Leadership has a long evolutionary history, having come about as the result of
group challenges such as group movement and competition (Van Vugt, Hogan, & Kaiser,
2008). In a group situation, the first mover is more likely to become the leader. Task
15
leadership emerges when the interests of the leaders and the interests of the followers
coincide; however, when the interests of the two groups diverge, people oriented
leadership emerges (Van Vugt et al., 2008).
Strong negative relationships exist with leadership criteria in the laissez-faire
leadership style (Hinkin & Schriesheim, 2008). Follower performance does not
precipitate laissez-faire leadership, as in active or passive management by exception and
contingent reward style. “Laissez-faire leadership does not appear to be motivated and
intentional; it is simply the lack of any response to subordinates’ needs and performance”
(Hinkin & Schriesheim, 2008, p. 1235). Factors beyond the control of the leader may be
inconsistent or unacceptable when a leader attaches no action to the performance of
followers. Lack of any action can produce negative consequences when a subordinate
portrays poor performance and could be worse when the performance is good (Hinkin &
Schriesheim, 2008).
The corporate culture is not something formally appointed leaders can design
deliberately (Painter-Morland, 2008). Current literature about ethical leadership indicates
interactions between leaders and followers are important. A shift has occurred in the way
individuals interpret their relationships with their employers (Painter-Morland, 2008).
Consequently, the control and influence over these individuals is no longer the sole
responsibility of the appointed leader.
Leadership and followership relationships should be considered from a temporal
perspective (Bluedorn & Jaussi, 2008). With respect to leadership, time should be
considered by viewing the life cycles of leaders, their development, and their
16
performance (Bluedorn & Jaussi, 2008); this inside-the-career view of time considers a
leader’s development across time. Entrainment within the leader–follower relationship is
a viable link between the development of the organization and the employees, where
entrainment is the adjustment of pace or the cycle of one activity to synchronize with
another phenomenon (Bluedorn & Jaussi, 2007). The extension of entrainment theory as
a phenomenon can occur between different levels of individuals and collectives.
The changing internal and external conditions of business result in pressure to modify the
roles and processes of leaders and followers (Küpers & Weibler, 2008). Leadership
research reflects the trend for change and has reflected the social sciences (Küpers &
Weibler, 2008). The fact that an individual’s traits and characteristics are not well-suited
to study leadership is evidence of the change in research (Küpers & Weibler, 2008).
Leadership is a dynamic process focused on emotional as well as social systems (Küpers
& Weibler, 2008).
A social structure develops when a social activity convenes, and one of the
defining characteristics of the structure is the emergence of a leader (Judge, Piccolo, &
Kosalka, 2009). Emergence of a leader does not contradict the importance of individual
characteristics (Judge et al., 2009); rather, the emergence of leadership is proof of
individual differences. The individual characteristics manifest themselves as bright and
dark traits. The bright traits are conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness,
emotional stability, openness to experience, core self-evaluation, intelligence, and
charisma, and the dark traits are narcissism, hubris, social dominance, and
17
Machiavellianism (Judge et al., 2009). The leader trait perspective experienced decades
of prominence followed by much skepticism and lack of interest.
The definition of leadership reflects the idea that leadership is a process and
involves the exertion of intentional influence to facilitate activities and relationships
within a group or organization (Yukl, 2010). The general tendency to give credit to only
the leader clouds the followers’ contributions. Effective followers are responsible for the
successful completion of work carried out by the unit. To be effective, a follower must
integrate two different roles: the role of implementer of leader made decisions and the
role of challenger if the decisions made by the leader are ill-advised (Yukl, 2010).
Effective followers are more likely to be committed to the organization and its vision.
Followers who view themselves as active and independent rather than passive and
dependent upon their leader are more likely to be effective (Yukl, 2010).
Transformational leadership. Transformational leadership has become the most
popular approach to understanding leader effectiveness (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006) within
since the early 1990s. The explanation for the effects of transformational leaders is not
rooted in the leader but in the job (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Transformational leaders
play a role in the management of meaning and social information for their followers
(Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006). Followers who go beyond the normal requirements of their
jobs do so to satisfy some higher order of individual values (Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006).
Transformational leaders have the ability to improve follower performance
(Boerner, Eisenbeiss, & Griesser, 2007) by encouraging better organizational citizenship.
Boerner et al. (2007) noted, “Transformational leaders inspire followers to achieve
18
extraordinary outcomes by providing both meaning and understanding” (p. 16). The
relationship between transformational leadership and performance outcomes is the result
of followers’ trust, agreement on values, cohesion, satisfaction, and motivation of
followers. As the conscientiousness of followers increase, leaders tend to empower and
increase motivation (Boerner et al., 2007).
Low level managers and high level managers face different contexts as the
environment of an organization defines the boundaries (Bruch & Walter, 2007). When
there is a difference in the perceived context of the environment, low and middle
managers find it difficult to be charismatic role models because they are constrained by
the organizational regulations and their authority is limited (Bruch & Walter, 2007). Low
and middle managers have their work tasks clearly predefined, which makes it difficult to
approach tasks in an innovative manner (Bruch & Walter, 2007). Therefore,
organizational visions that involve innovation may have limited relevance to the
supervisors of daily work (Bruch & Walter, 2007).
Meaningful work mediates the relationship between positive well-being and
transformational leadership (Arnold, Turner, Barling, Kelloway, & McKee, 2007). When
a leader does the right thing, the decision engenders the trust and respect of the followers
and idealized influence occurs (Arnold et al., 2007). Leaders who practice inspirationally
motivating followers encourage followers to sustain high performance (Arnold et al.,
2007). Followers challenged to answer their own questions are intellectually stimulated
(Arnold et al., 2007). When a leader practices coaching employees, shows appreciation
for work completed, and treats each employee as a person (Arnold et al., 2007), the
19
leader is individually considerate. Positive supervisory behavior contributes significantly
to the well-being of employees (Arnold et al., 2007). Finding higher purpose in work is
associated with transformational leadership and with increased job satisfaction,
cohesiveness, and effort (Arnold et al., 2007).
Transformational leadership is best suited to organizations in the early 21st
century (Northouse, 2007), when employees want to be inspired and empowered.
Transformational leaders encourage and help followers reach their potential by
encouraging attentiveness to the followers’ needs and motives and by celebrating their
accomplishments. “Transformational leadership places a strong emphasis on followers’
needs, values, and morals” (Northouse, 2007, p. 191). Such an emphasis allows and
encourages the building of trust between leader and follower.
Transformational leaders inspire followers (Nielsen, Randall, Yarker, & Brenner,
2008) to become more interested in their work and to become innovative and creative by
applying a visionary and creative style of leadership. Leadership behavior influences
affective well-being and the leadership–well-being relationship (Nielsen et al., 2008).
According to Bass (as cited in Nielsen et al., 2008), transformational leaders have an
impact on the perceptions followers have of their leaders’ work characteristics because
the leaders provide personal attention, enable innovative ways of working, and provide
coaching and encouragement through intellectual stimulation. Three work characteristics
act as a bridge between transformational leadership behavior and well-being in followers:
“increased role clarity, increased meaningfulness, and increased opportunities for
development” (Nielsen et al., 2008, p. 18).
20
Transformation and passive avoidance leadership styles have received a great deal
of focus in current research (Hetland, Sandal, & Johnsen, 2008). In transformational
leadership, leaders provide vision and inspirational motivation, which allows followers to
identify with the leaders and to consider followers’ needs (Hetland et al. 2008). Passive
avoidance leadership is a leadership style characterized by not making any decisions and
by reacting only after a problem becomes serious (Hetland et al. 2008). The leadership
literature linked leadership behavior and attitude to followership (Hetland et al., 2008) by
demonstrating how leaders’ behavior affects the behavior of their subordinates. High
levels of extraversion and conscientiousness are important follower characteristics
(Hetland et al., 2008).
Positive emotions are associated with transformational leadership, and negative
emotions are associated with transactional leadership (Rowold & Rohmann, 2009).
Transformational leadership improves the effect of transactional leadership on
satisfaction and the effectiveness of followers. Leaders of voluntary organizations cannot
rely upon reward and punishment as the primary means of motivation in the same manner
as leaders in for profit organizations (Rowold & Rohmann, 2009).
The economic and geopolitical developments of the recent past have placed
demands on leaders to make them more aware of their own values and to behave in a
more transparent manner (Clapp-Smith, Vogelgesang, & Avey, 2009). Organizational
leaders’ search for methods to help in the selection and development of future leaders
will reflect the values of the stakeholders and create a long-term vision. When followers
21
believe the top management exhibits authentic leadership, they will have greater trust in
those leaders (Clapp-Smith et al., 2009).
Leaders should develop a sense of security in followers to encourage employees
to be receptive to the vision of the organization (Moss, 2009). Before they begin
transformational behavior leaders need to encourage the development of the promotion
focus of employees. A sense of security in followers fosters a focus of followers on
potential opportunities and aspirations. Recognizing followers’ contributions and
demonstrating emotional support to maintain a sense of security are important (Moss,
2009).
Transformational leaders inspire employees to be independent thinkers by using a
creative and visionary style of leadership (Nielsen & Munir, 2009). Transformational
leaders feel good about themselves as they have a more clear vision of their work if they
foster appreciation for the work of the followers (Nielsen & Munir, 2009). This
intellectual stimulation encourages followers to make their own decisions (Nielsen &
Munir, 2009; Tims, Bakker, & Xanthopoulou, 2011) and become creative and innovative
in the accomplishment of their tasks; through this approach, the follower feels more
challenged and consequently more engaged in the process. This stimulation may lead to
self-efficacy as the followers believe they can solve difficult problems and handle
difficult tasks without the leader (Nielsen & Munir, 2009).
Leadership theories indicate individuals have preconceived ideas of followership
(Sy, 2010). The preconceived ideas may influence the leader–follower context because
the outcomes may serve as benchmarks that allow individuals to respond to followers in a
22
certain fashion (Sy, 2010). It is necessary to understand how leaders influence followers’
behaviors, cognitions, and outcomes to understand further the perceptions leaders have of
followers (Sy, 2010).
The transformation of the relationship between the leader and the follower is
important to the study of human development and institutions (Kuepers, 2011). Without
transformation of attitude, management/leadership style organizations may remain
stagnant. A phenomenological perspective is best to view transformational agents and
processes and to view the transformation through a lived situation (Kuepers, 2011).
Transformational practices are the result of the involvement of members of the
organization as they seek ways to become involved in the changes taking place (Kuepers,
2011). The leadership of the organization guides the activity of the members by instilling
the concept of the vision for the organization (Kuepers, 2011). The concept requires the
investment of time, energy, money, and other resources with a long-term focus (Kuepers,
2011).
Charismatic leadership. Followers’ motivation, attitudes, and behaviors in a
leader centric perspective such as charismatic leadership (J. M. Howell & Shamir, 2005)
rely too heavily upon the influence of leader characteristics and behaviors. The role of
followers in the leadership process is more complex than the role assigned to followers in
leadership theories (J. M. Howell & Shamir, 2005). Understanding followers is equally
as important as understanding leaders (J. M. Howell & Shamir, 2005).
Positive modeling is a viable method by which leaders can develop authentic
followers (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumbwa, 2005). An inclusive, ethical,
23
caring, and strength based organizational climate can pair with modeling. A leader
attains authenticity through self-awareness, self-acceptance, and authentic actions and
relationships (Gardner et al., 2005). “These relationships are characterized by: (a)
transparency, openness, and trust, (b) guidance toward worthy objectives, and (c) an
emphasis on follower development” (Gardner et al., 2005, p. 345). To model and
promote the development of confidence, optimism, hope, and resilience, Gardner et al.
(2005) noted authentic leaders must draw from optimal self-esteem and psychological
well-being. An integral component of the consequences of the development of authentic
leadership is the development of authentic followers (Gardner et al., 2005). The
modeling of authentic leaders in terms of self-awareness and selfregulation that leads to
follower development (Gardner et al., 2005) produces the development of authentic
followership. The observation of a leader displaying self-awareness and transparent
decision making that reflect a commitment to core values will lead to the development of
trust in the leader, which could foster follower performance (Gardner et al., 2005).
Organizational leaders strive to develop and implement processes, initiatives, and
programs designed to improve the attitudes and performance of followers (Moss, Ritossa,
& Ngu, 2006). The success of these programs depends upon the motives of the followers
and is referred to as regulatory focus. Regulatory focus influences leadership style, or in
other words, the followers determine how the leader is going to lead by influencing the
processes, initiatives, and programs (Moss et al., 2006).
Followers perceive their leaders as more effective when the leaders exhibit
personalities similar to their followers (Schyns & Felfe, 2006). Groups of followers who
24
have personality characteristics similar to their leader perceive the leader as more
effective (Schyns & Felfe, 2006). Therefore, individual followers who perceive the
leader similar to themselves will perceive more charismatic and transformational
leadership.
Recognition of a leader’s integrity and authenticity by the followers (Fields, 2007)
makes a difference in the degree of the leader’s influence over the group of followers.
Fields (2007) also emphasized the identification of attributes, attitudes, or approaches
that influence the followers. Leaders must behave in ways consistent with their moral
codes and personal values. To influence and earn the respect of followers, leaders must
exhibit integrity as well as authenticity. To determine authenticity and integrity,
followers need specific information from the leader, from the context, and from other
followers (Fields, 2007). Integrity and authenticity are attributes a follower may attribute
to the leader in the context with the attributes of competence, reliability, concern for
followers, standards of performance, and reputation (Fields, 2007).
The focus of recent leadership research has been leaders and their behavior and
traits (Schyns, Meindl, & Croon, 2007; Shalit, Popper, & Zakay, 2010). However,
researchers are becoming increasingly interested in the followers’ perspective of
leadership. Schyns et al. (2007) regarded leadership from a social constructivist point of
view, which means people are involved in building leadership rather than leadership
being just what the leader does. A criticism of this approach is the approach does not
include the situation in which the followers act.
25
Leadership is situational and involves the process of influence (Vroom & Jago,
2007). If no one is following, then no one is leading; all leaders have one thing in
common: followers. Threats, promises of rewards, and inspirational appeals (Vroom &
Jago, 2007) are effective in motivating followers to some extent and under certain
circumstances. Vroom and Jago (2007) established five implications of leadership:

is a process, not a property of a person;

involves a particular form of influence called motivating;

the nature of leadership incentives, extrinsic or intrinsic, is not part of the
definition;

is collaboration in pursuit of a common goal;

in the minds of both leader and followers is not necessarily viewed as
desirable by all other parties; and

is not purely dispositional or purely situational, as to think so would eliminate
a major portion of the phenomenon.
The level of confidence in the knowledge, skills, and abilities associated with
other social roles differentiates leadership efficacy from other forms (Hannah, Avolio,
Luthans, & Harms, 2008). A consideration for developing leadership should be the
leaders’ and followers’ efficacies associated with the challenges of development and
performance (Hannah et al., 2008). Leaders’ (followers’) efficacy is “a belief in their
perceived capabilities to organize the positive psychological capabilities, motivation,
means, collective resources, and course of action required to attain effective, sustainable
performance across various leadership roles, demands and context” (Hannah et al., 2008,
26
p. 670). Leader self-efficacy can demonstrate a capability to predict work outcomes and
has been associated with higher levels of performance for both individuals and groups
(Hannah et al., 2008).
Employees value respectful leadership (van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2009).
Respectful leadership consists of noticing others and recognizing them as persons of
value and importance (van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2009). A respectful person perceives
a reason for the respect that justifies the respect itself (van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2009).
A respectful person acts in a manner that creates a feeling of appreciation for the other
person’s importance and worth (van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2009). Respectful
leadership will overcome the lack of respect employees feel from their supervisors and
increase performance and production (van Quaquebeke & Eckloff, 2009).
The promotion of team innovation by the support of team commitment and
identity encourages team members to cooperate (Paulsen, Maldanado, Callan, & Ayoko,
2009). Teams with a strong team identity and led by individuals with a charismatic style
are more cooperative and innovative (Paulsen et al., 2009). A transformational leader
who influences followers’ senses of identity will influence those followers to follow a
more cooperative strategy to resolve organizational issues (Paulsen et al., 2009).
Leadership style directly affects innovation and shapes innovative outcomes through
team identification and cooperation (Paulsen et al., 2009).
Different variables have been subjected to analysis to provide a list of leadership
characteristics (Anjanee, Neera, & Shoma, 2010). Politics and the leaders being heads of
state gave rise to the classic concept of leadership (Anjanee et al., 2010). Trait theory of
27
leadership gave rise to the belief that leaders are endowed with special traits that allow
them to be able to lead (Anjanee et al., 2010). Globalization, liberalization, and
technology will influence leadership in the 21st century (Anjanee et al., 2010). The
successful leaders of the future will influence the followers who do the work by using
emotional intelligence (Anjanee et al., 2010).
Charismatic leadership is frequently associated with extraordinary forms of
influence (Galvin, Balkundi, & Waldman, 2010). Without direct contact between the
leader and the followers, a void may develop as there are no behaviors to compare against
their preconceived prototypes (Galvin et al., 2010). Therefore, a need exists for
surrogates to help form the influence exhibited by charismatic leaders. Surrogates are
responsible for leaders being able to gain considerable influence even at great distances
(Galvin et al., 2010). Leaders who have followers with whom they spend little time can
benefit from the surrogate’s behavior providing a model of followership (Galvin et al.,
2010). Modeling can be in formal or informal settings where the leader is or is not
present. Modeling can also take place in response to a leader’s tasking without coercion.
Modeling can be as simple as a leader’s greeting or small talk in the presence of others
who do not know the leader well (Galvin et al., 2010). Such encounters portray the
leader as friendly and help distant followers feel comfortable around the leader.
Sinha (2010) explored the use of symbolic and relational aspects of leadership
through the subgenres of dramatism. The three subgenres are dramatism (life is drama),
dramaturgy (life is like drama), and social drama (life and drama are interdependent).
Dramatism focuses attention on the social construction of leader identity by explaining
28
the action of the leader and the reciprocal action of the follower, which indicates the
nature of leadership cannot be reduced to an objective set of rules (Sinha, 2010).
Followership
Litzinger and Schaefer (1982) asked graduates of a military academy how
leadership should be taught and developed. The graduates’ responses to the question
were to teach individuals how to be followers first. Litzinger and Schaefer posited
mature leaders take upon themselves all the attributes of those led.
Interdependence exists between leadership and followership (Hollander, 1992).
Leaders are generally in the spotlight (Hollander, 1992), command attention, and wield
influence; however, followers can wield influence and affect a leader’s activity. The role
of the follower can have the potential for assuming leadership functions (Hollander,
1992).
Followership dominates organizations, with followers outnumbering leaders
(Dixon & Westbrook, 2003). The fixation with leadership constrains the nature and
importance of the follower and the relationship with the leader. The concept of
followership is not synonymous with subordinate (Dixon & Westbrook, 2003). “Being a
subordinate is mechanical or physical, it is being under the control of the superiors as if
in some hypnotic trance” (Dixon & Westbrook, 2003, p. 20), whereas being a follower is
a condition and not a position.
Followership is a role equally as relevant to achieving group and organization
goals as is the leadership role (J. P. Howell & Costley, 2006). Followership complements
(J. P. Howell & Costley, 2006) the leadership role by maintaining a high degree of
29
enthusiasm, cooperation, active participation, task competence, and critical thinking. The
followership role seeks to satisfy the personal needs of the individual follower (J. P.
Howell & Costley, 2006). The needs are (a) comradeship, (b) confirm a favorable selfconcept, and (c) satisfy the need for self-esteem and self-actualization (J. P. Howell &
Costley, 2006). When a follower is able to exhibit expert power by displaying
intelligence, competence, and critical thinking skills and exhibit referent power by
displaying sociability, flexibility, and the ability to handle stress, the follower will be
more effective and influential with the leader (J. P. Howell & Costley, 2006).
One reason leadership scholars have had difficulty defining leadership is the
questions being asked do not have general answers and adds to the complexity and not
clarity of the definition (Hackman & Wagerman, 2007). Leadership scholars have
concentrated efforts to identify the dimensions that summarize leader behavior and style
(Hackman & Wagerman, 2007), which reinforces the need for qualitative studies of
leadership. “The prospect of losing resources is qualitatively different from the prospect
of a gain” (Hackman & Wagerman, 2007, p. 45). Leadership and followership are linked
with one another and the differences between leader and follower are blurred: “leaders
also are followers and followers also exhibit leadership” (Hackman & Wagerman, 2007,
p. 45). When comparing excellent leadership performers to poor leadership performers,
the same logic must apply, in that poor leadership performers exhibit entirely different
behaviors than do excellent leadership performers (Hackman & Wagerman, 2007).
Four major threats to the stability of the world are a nuclear/biological situation, a
worldwide pandemic, tribalism, and the leadership of human institutions (Bennis, 2007).
30
To solve the first three problems, there must be exemplary leadership (Bennis, 2007).
Leadership is never purely academic in nature, and it is easy to disallow bad leadership
when describing leadership in the language of academics. According to Bennis (2007),
“Creativity is an essential characteristic of leaders” (p. 2). Leaders must make creative
choices about the nature of the analysis of the study of leadership (Bennis, 2007).
Leadership is a relationship between the leader, followers, and the common goal they
share. When comparing great and heroic leaders of the past, the one thing they all had in
common was a group of willing followers, meaning leadership only exists in the
consensus of the followers (Bennis, 2007).
Shamir (2007) described five followership roles: followers as recipients of the
leader’s influence, followers as moderators of the leader’s influence, followers as
substitutes for leadership, followers as constructors of leadership, and followers as
leaders. The focus of most leadership theories (Shamir, 2007) is the personal
background, traits, characteristics, and actions of leaders. Followers are the recipients or
moderators of the actions taken by the leader to achieve the leader’s goals or vision. This
leader centric perspective has potentially negative implications, such as the
overdependence of followers on leaders (Shamir, 2007). Developing leaders may only
have a limited effect on leadership development because followers and their contributions
to the process are not included (Shamir, 2007).
The people who are doing the following define leadership (van Knippenberg, van
Knippenberg, & Giessner, 2007). The influence a leader has over followers may be a
result of the perceptions the followers have of leadership rather than from the leader (van
31
Knippenberg et al., 2007), which indicates when performance outcomes are attributed to
leadership a tendency may exist to overattribute the performance to the leaders. The
presumed effectiveness of leaders may stem from the followers’ conceptions of
leadership and the attributions to leadership (van Knippenberg et al., 2007). This process
may occur at the level of an individual follower or at the level of a group of followers that
shares a definition of effective leadership (van Knippenberg et al., 2007). Leaders are
also members of the group they lead, and as a group member responses may be
characterized by the leader’s characteristics as a group member rather than as a leader
(van Knippenberg et al., 2007).
Thinking and action are being, and it is difficult to separate thinking and action
into distinct entities; action takes place but always with thinking and vice versa (Smythe
& Norton, 2007). Thinking leaders know leading is following (Smythe & Norton, 2007),
and following and leading depend upon each other. Leaders should interact with the
followers to listen, watch, guide, and draw information about the direction to lead
(Smythe & Norton, 2007.
The identification of leaders and followers allows for individuals to define
themselves within the group (Lührmann & Eberl, 2007). Members of the group explore
and imitate the behaviors of other members of the group to become effective leaders
(Lührmann & Eberl, 2007). Identification within the group is a product of self-reflection,
which places the member as either a leader or a follower (Lührmann & Eberl, 2007).
Identity negotiation takes place within the group as leaders and followers remain
sensitive to social feedback. To discover where the individual fits within a group and to
32
get social approval for identity proposal, an individual uses the attitudes of others to help
make sense of the process (Lührmann & Eberl, 2007). Members of the group view and
treat other members of the group and themselves as either leaders or followers
(Lührmann & Eberl, 2007) based upon the establishment of the leader and follower
identities of the group. Leaders have a greater impact upon the construction of identity
process because leaders and followers do not interact on equal terms.
A growing amount of research about followership indicates researchers cannot
study leadership in isolation with only minor consideration given to followers (Baker,
2007). “Social change in the United States and elsewhere shaped people’s view of
followers” (Baker, 2007, p. 51). After World War II, the United States became a
dominant economic power, and because of the nature of the leader–follower relationship,
organizational leaders promised job security in exchange for loyalty, obedience, and hard
work (Baker, 2007). Nothing more was asked of followers while economic conditions
were stable because the need to explore the leader–follower relationship was not
established. However, in the 1980s, U.S. industry experienced a crisis brought on by the
advancing global economy, changes in the labor force, and government regulations that
introduced changes in the employment relationship that changed the stable nature of the
leader–follower relationship (Baker, 2007). As a result, the need for more active
followers arose. Followership theory grew out of recognition of followers and the
development of active followership (Baker, 2007).
The traditional concepts of leadership and followership require modification
(Küpers, 2007) due to the increased fragmentation and change in the external and internal
33
contexts of business. The interactions between leader and follower are relations between
independent individuals (Küpers, 2007). The leader’s action is reduced to an act
performed to know how to achieve influence over another (Küpers, 2007). In this
paradigm, followership has been restricted to show how the followers can contribute to
the qualities of the leader.
Followership is typically included as an afterthought in most traditional leadership
theories; however, leadership scholars have increasingly begun including the role of
followership within the leadership paradigm (Avolio & Reichard, 2008). An increased
sense of psychological ownership, trust, and transparency heightens followership
potential (Avolio & Reichard, 2008) within the leader–follower dynamic. Trust is a
relationship between leader and follower and is the key to followership. Transparency
enhances organizational intelligence and the processes of followership (Avolio &
Reichard, 2008).
Most leadership experts indicate followership has an active role that complements
the role of the leader in achieving results (J. P. Howell & Mendez, 2008). The active role
(J. P. Howell & Mendez, 2008) addresses the fact that both the follower and the leader
have the potential to product effective or ineffective leader–follower interactions and
successful or unsuccessful results. Mentoring programs are likely to support these
leader–follower interactions (J. P. Howell & Mendez, 2008). Professional education is
also likely to support positive leader–follower interactions and is likely to support a
shifting role in followership that reflects the need to alternate between leadership and
followership roles within an organization (J. P. Howell & Mendez, 2008).
34
Stech (2008) called for a new way to understand and define leadership. The
leadership–followership paradigm must address leadership and followership at the same
time, while not just considering the bureaucratic organization (Stech, 2008). In the
leadership–followership paradigm, an individual can occupy both leadership and
followership conditions at various times within an organization (Stech, 2008).
A leader and a follower serve a common purpose, each from his or her own role
(Chaleff, 2008). This idea creates a noble role for the follower and creates a healthier and
more level playing field. The only thing a leader must have is followers; “if no one is
following, then no one is leading” (Chaleff, 2008, p. 72). Leadership cannot exist
without followership, and it is disingenuous to honor leadership without honoring
followership.
Adair (2008) explored the apparent disparity among leadership scholars in that
most did not yet understand that leadership is a part of followership. The foundation a
follower establishes equates to the house with a solid, firm foundation that is able to
withstand the elements, and while each follower maintains this foundation, the ability to
lead will be manifested (Adair, 2008). Organizations succeed or fail based upon the input
and output of their employees; however, employees succeed or fail based upon the
leader–follower relationship (Adair, 2008).
Leadership is a process that transfers between and among individuals (Gilbert &
Matviuk, 2008) within an organization. This transfer means those who are followers
sometimes assume leadership roles and vice versa. The followership paradigm shifts
35
from being subordinate and obedient to organizational tasks to a role that enhances
growth within an organization (Gilbert & Matviuk, 2008).
The enthusiasm displayed by those researching great leaders of past and the zeal
of those trying to identify leaders to hire overlook the people the leaders will lead
(Mushonga & Torrance, 2008). Followers’ personalities relate to a specific, appropriate
followership style (Mushonga & Torrance, 2008). The term followership is often
associated with negative connotations and a lack of research on the topic (Mushonga &
Torrance, 2008).
It is up to the nonleaders or the followers to make an organization function in an
effective manner (Dixon, 2008). The followers who achieve the mission are destined to
contribute in a positive manner. Followers are an important part of leadership
effectiveness (Dixon, 2008). As followers gain experience, they become sounding boards
for those with less experience, and these followers are leaders in encouraging those with
less experience to hold their course in achieving the leader’s mission (Dixon, 2008).
Followers interpret social processes based upon their own set of cognitive schema
and these followers base their responses upon self-regulatory structures tied to their selfidentity (Lord, 2008). Based upon cognitive psychology, followers do not experience the
world directly but through mental a schema learned over time (Lord, 2008). This schema
is a critical part of a follower’s contribution to the leadership process.
Ethical leadership (Neubert, Carlson, Kacmar, Roberts, & Chonko, 2009) affects
follower job satisfaction and commitment both directly and indirectly. The indirect effect
of ethical leadership shapes perceptions of the ethical climate of an organization, which
36
increases job satisfaction and commitment to an organization. Managers use the
legitimate authority to maintain influence within the organization (Neubert et al., 2009).
Because of the considerate and trustworthy nature of the behavior of ethical leadership,
managers are able to develop relational attachments with subordinates (Neubert et al.,
2009). Development of relational attachments allows for the exertion of moral authority,
which allows for the development of an environment conducive for long-term
development of organizational members (Neubert et al., 2009).
Followers dominate all organizations, but a preoccupation with the leader hinders
the consideration of the importance of the followers and the relationship between
followers and leaders (Dixon, 2009). Managers use performance evaluations as a way to
express expectations (Dixon, 2009). The measurement of follower behaviors would
increase the value and usefulness of performance evaluations. Organizational
performance depends upon contributions of both leaders and followers. However,
managers appear to be more interested in the leadership rather than the followers who
sustain the leadership (Dixon, 2009).
Positive follower characteristics are to be creative, be innovative, be proactive,
display initiative, and be a learning orientation (Zhu, Avolio, & Walumbwa, 2009). In
recent studies on transformational leadership, researchers have explored the variables that
influence or moderate the link between leadership and followers’ motivation and
performance. The followers’ need for growth tempered the relationship between
participative leadership and follower accomplishment. Leadership researchers should
37
explore followers’ attributes to determine how to motivate followers to perform (Zhu et
al., 2009).
While some leadership research focuses on followership, most research is focused
on leadership behaviors and not followership behaviors (Carsten, Uhl-Bien, West, Patera,
& McGregor, 2010). Followership behaviors differ as they do not address the activities
of independent subordinate positions (Carsten et al., 2010) but rather address the
behaviors of individuals acting in relation to the leader. Followership behaviors are not
how individuals react to their work or coworkers but how individuals respond to those of
higher status. Effective followers influence their leaders with constructive and upward
communication to seek positive transformation in the organization.
The impression followers have of leader competence and intentions will have an
effect upon the outcome as far as leadership effectiveness is concerned (Yukl, 2010).
Followers will be more effective if they view themselves as active and independent
(Yukl, 2010). A leader will be much more effective if the followers provide accurate
information, resist giving bad advice, and provide encouragement and coaching (Yukl,
2010).
The categorization of followers (Chong & Wolf, 2010) according to their
personality traits is essential. Many of the traits associated with effective leaders are also
associated with effective followers (Chong & Wolf, 2010). The traits are “commitment,
initiative, courageous conscience, creativity and innovation, and having a sense of
direction, drive, and intensity” (Chong & Wolf, 2010, p. 403). Therefore, if the traits of
38
effective followers and the traits of effective leaders are similar, then effective followers
may become effective leaders (Chong & Wolf, 2010).
The most effective attributes of followers help in understanding both leader and
follower behavior (Antelo, Prilipko, & Sheridan-Pereira, 2010). Follower attributes are
an essential component of leadership (Antelo et al., 2010). Leaders attribute
characteristics to their followers based upon the behavior of the followers. A person does
not have to be in a leadership position to provide leadership (Antelo et al., 2010).
Leadership and followership are closely related (Daft, 2011). Followership can
shape leader behavior just as leaders can develop people into good leaders (Daft, 2011).
For any organization, there must be people who willingly follow just as there must be
people who willingly lead. Everyone is a follower (Collinson, 2006; Daft, 2011) at some
point, even those in positions of leadership and authority who find effective followership
is not easy. Both leaders and followers must be proactive and work together to achieve a
shared vision (Daft, 2011). Leaders need followers with a make it happen attitude, a
willingness to collaborate, the motivation to stay up to date, and the passion to drive
individual growth (Daft, 2011).
Hospitality Management
Exploring the history of commercial hospitality has value for the hospitality
industry (O’Gorman, 2009) and had application to the current study. The history of the
commercial hospitality industry began in Mesopotamia in approximately 2000 BC
(O’Gorman, 2009). Laws of the time controlled the commercial hostels and inns of
Mesopotamia and ancient Rome (O’Gorman, 2009). The supply of commercial
39
hospitality was subject to the demand of the market, even in ancient times (O’Gorman,
2009).
The increased use of technology and the worldwide economic crisis has created
changes in the hospitality and tourism industry and has left the industry with uncertainty
and unpredictability (Naipaul & Wang, 2009). The current business environment calls
for creativity and innovation (Naipaul & Wang, 2009) and a different set of management
skills. Hospitality managers must demonstrate the management skills to be successful in
the current business environment (Naipaul & Wang, 2009).
Managers in the hospitality industry need a broad range of skills (Harkinson,
Poulston & Kim 2009). If educators know what the hospitality industry requires, then a
modification of curricula can take place to meet the needs of the industry (Harkinson et
al., 2009). Hospitality students are confident in the value of their degree; however,
experience is important to their career as well. Short internships offered in hospitality
degrees allow students to connect theory and practice in an industry setting (Harkinson et
al., 2009).
The requirement for hospitality management in the future is great; the National
Restaurant Association has forecast the need for thousands of managerial positions for
the hospitality industry in the future for travel, hotel, and restaurant businesses (Walker,
2010). The focus of the current study was the hotel business. The hospitality industry
philosophy has changed over time from managers’ planning, organizing, implementing,
and evaluating to the philosophy of more participative management and increased
associate empowerment (Walker, 2010). The corporate philosophy has shifted away
40
from production (Walker, 2010) to an environment with a focus on guest-related services.
Successful organizations are able to combine the shift in industry philosophy and
corporate philosophy and communicate the changes in philosophy to employees.
Hospitality managers should develop institutional cultures to support their
employees while improving their own leadership competency; when taken together,
overall performance will improve (Aree, Zain, & Razalli, 2010). Leadership competency
and organizational culture can work together to improve organizational revenue (Aree et
al., 2010). Hospitality industry managers can improve revenue and responsiveness by
improving strategic positioning, critical thinking, communication, and interpersonal
skills. Many of the same skills are required of good followers.
To provide excellent customer service, hospitality employees must make
decisions independently (Gill, Fitzgerald, Bhutani, Mand, & Sharma, 2010), and for this
to happen, employee empowerment must exist. Transformational leadership provides the
means to improve empowerment strategies within the hospitality industry (Gill et al.,
2010). Transformation leadership encourages open communication, and through
communication, hospitality managers can instill the vision, mission, goals, and objectives
of an organization (Gill et al., 2010), which increases empowerment. Employee
empowerment programs help ensure excellent customer service and leadership practices
should reflect the desire for empowerment (Gill et al., 2010).
The characteristics displayed by a manager affects the way a hospitality manager
relates to and influences followers (Brownell, 2010). Recent worldwide events
demonstrates not only is leadership important but also the character of the leader matters.
41
Servant leadership philosophy can benefit the hospitality industry (Brownell, 2010).
Organizational trust is the result of employee empowerment and shared values. The
behavior of hospitality leaders has an impact on the organization; the leaders can make a
difference (Brownell, 2010).
Transition and Summary
The preceding section contained a foundation for the current study. Background
information, as well as the problem and purpose statements, were reviewed. A
description of the nature of the study was provided, along with the research questions.
The conceptual framework for the study was identified as systems theory. The section
included definitions of terms; assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of the study; the
significance of the study to include the implications for social change; and a review of the
professional scholarly literature.
The following section will begin with a review of the purpose of the study, as well
as a description of the role of the researcher in the data collection process. The following
section will also contain a description of the participant selection process and an outline
of the measures designed to ensure the ethical protection of participants. Additionally,
the following section will contain a description of the research method and design,
population from which the participants were drawn, data collection instrument, data
organization and analysis techniques, and the reliability and validity of the study.
42
Section 2: The Project
This section contains a description of the phenomenological research project; a
review of the purpose of the project; a description of the role of the researcher;
identification of the participants; description of the research method and design;
identification of the population and sampling; methods of data collection, organization,
and analysis; and description of the methods to establish reliability and validity of the
study.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the
phenomenon of followership by identifying characteristics that translate to good
leadership. The research method was appropriate for the study because the method added
rich detail to document existing knowledge about leadership and helped to understand
leadership from the perspective of the actors rather than explaining it from the outside
(Ospina, 2004). Other research methods were not appropriate to obtain the requisite data
because they would not have allowed me to take into account the human experience
associated with the phenomenological research method (Creswell, 2009). The research
involved conducting in-depth interviews and was appropriate to a qualitative
phenomenological study because I gained access to the respondents’ lived experiences.
Other research designs such as grounded theory were not appropriate because researchers
of grounded theory studies seek to answer the how and why questions and then establish
a theory based upon the findings.
43
Dixon (2008) and Adair (2008) noted the preoccupation with leadership in the
United States. Adair reported organizational leaders only spend 20% of their training
time on followers. The study helped to close this gap by helping to identify possible
characteristics of exemplary followers, which could lead to the development of
information that may improve leadership training programs, specifically improve
leadership development. The specific participant population of the study was 20
midlevel hospitality managers located in the southeastern United States along the coast of
the Gulf of Mexico. The population was limited to midlevel hospitality managers in
organizations with more than 100 and less than 400 employees.
Role of the Researcher
The role of the researcher is to try to understand the phenomenon from the
perspective of inside the population (Ospina, 2004). From inside a population, the
researcher uses an inductive mode to let the data speak (Ospina, 2004). A researcher
should aim for a holistic picture (Ospina, 2004) from each of the unique interviews that
take place. The role of the researcher was one of immersion in the experiential
engagement by maintaining direct contact with the participants. As the researcher of the
study, I conducted face-to-face interviews to understand leadership fully by identifying
the perceived characteristics of exemplary followers. Creswell (2009) noted the
researcher is responsible for gaining access to the research site and has responsibility for
any ethical issues that might arise during a study.
44
Participants
Creswell (2007) indicated researchers should select research participants carefully
to ensure the individuals selected have experienced the phenomenon under investigation.
The participants volunteered to participate in the study. The pool of potential participants
was midlevel managers of hospitality properties along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in
the United States.
The participants in the population received a letter of invitation (see Appendix A)
asking them to participate voluntarily in the study. The letter of introduction explained
the importance of the study to the hospitality industry and to management in general and
the need for their participation. The letter also indicated the approximate amount of time
necessary for participation. A copy of the informed consent letter sent to those who
volunteered to become participants is in Appendix B. The letter reiterated that
participation would be completely voluntary and that participants could withdraw at any
time without penalty. The letter also informed the participants of the confidential nature
of their responses.
Research Method and Design
The focus of the qualitative phenomenological study was exploring the
perceptions of followership of midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the
Gulf Coast in the United States. The study involved the use of a semistructured
interviewing method to determine, from the participants’ point of view (see Appendix C),
their lived and perceived experience with respect to the phenomenon of followership
45
(Creswell, 2009). A quantitative methodology was not a viable approach because the
research questions could not be tested with an experimental design.
Method
The study involved conducting a qualitative phenomenological study. The
research method was appropriate for the study because the study added rich detail that
documented existing knowledge about leadership and helped to understand leadership
from the perspective of the actors (Olivares et al., 2007; Ospina, 2004). Other research
methods were not appropriate to obtain the requisite data because leadership scholars
seek answers to questions about leadership culture and have found quantitative methods
do not adequately explain the phenomenon (Olivares et al., 2007; Ospina, 2004; Parr,
1998).
The quantitative method is appropriate when using an objective scientific
approach with defined collected numerical data and statistical analysis (Creswell, 2009)
but was not appropriate for the current study. Collecting numeric data on followership
would have been inappropriate because followership consists of nonquantifiable
attributes as defined by Kelley (2008). Other qualitative methods were also not
appropriate for the study. Grounded theory was not appropriate because it is a strategy
through which researchers seek to develop a theory about a specific process (Creswell,
2009). Ethnography was not appropriate because it involves studying a cultural group
over a long period of time (Creswell, 2009). Other research methods were not
appropriate to obtain the requisite data because researchers applying these methods fail to
take into account the human experience associated with the phenomenological research
46
method (Creswell, 2009). The qualitative phenomenological research method was
appropriate to the study because the study involved examining the perceived experiences
of the participants compared to the lived experiences of the participants as they pertained
to the characteristics of exemplary followers (Olivares et al., 2007). The study included a
“descriptive-analytic framework” (Olivares et al., 2007, p. 78) for better understanding
followership.
Research Design
The research design included an in-depth interview, which was appropriate to the
study because contextual factors allow researchers to observe and describe the subjective
factors that occur in a given situation (Conger, 1998; Ospina, 2004). Through qualitative
interviews, I gathered data and explored the lived experiences about followership of
midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the Gulf Coast of the United States.
Richards and Morse (2007) noted the “research design is created by the researcher, is
molded (rather than dictated) by the method, and is responsive to the context and the
participants” (p. 74). Themes gathered and general statements made provided a general
description of what the research participants experienced (Creswell, 2007) to develop a
description of followership.
Population and Sampling
In qualitative research, Creswell (2007) indicated researchers should select
research participants who have experienced the researched phenomenon if possible. The
purposeful selection of participants is necessary to have a better understanding of the
phenomenon in detail (Richards & Morse, 2007). The identification and selection of
47
potential research participants in a qualitative study may not always follow established
criteria (Moustakas, 1994). The 20 participants for the study were chosen purposively
from the total population of volunteer midlevel managers of hospitality organizations
along the Gulf Coast.
The purposeful sampling frame identified participants who had experienced
followership and were willing to share their experiences (Richards & Morse, 2007). The
participants for the study had at least one direct report and had been in their current
position for at least 1 year. Leedy and Ormrod (2005) noted, “A typical sample size for a
phenomenological study is from 5 to 25 individuals who have directly experienced the
phenomenon that is being studied” (p. 139). In qualitative designs, researchers must
decide how many participants to include (Seidman, 2006).
Data Collection
Instruments
The phenomenological study involved a qualitative method of data collection by
using in-depth interview data obtained from the participants. The patterns and themes of
the interview data became apparent through the use of Moustakas’ (1994) modified van
Kaam methodology. The modified van Kaam method of analysis involves the
classification of data obtained according to frequency of occurrence (Moustakas, 1994).
The pattern and themes were compared to provide a description of what was experienced
by the research participants to describe the investigated phenomenon (Creswell, 2009).
The participants in the study were provided the opportunity to comment on the accuracy
of the findings in follow-up interviews (Creswell, 2009).
48
Data Collection Technique
I collected the data for the study through face-to-face interviews of the
participants. Through qualitative interviews, a researcher can elicit responses from
participants about a particular research topic. The interview was semiformal, using openended questions. I designed the questions to collect background data on the participants
and to collect data that pertained to the participants’ experiences with the phenomenon in
question (Creswell, 2009). I audio recorded the interviews and took notes to capture
additional nuances of the experience. To produce detailed transcripts of each interview, I
had the interviews transcribed. Appendix C contains the interview questions.
Data Organization Techniques
The recorded data gathered from the face-to-face interviews were kept on my
password-protected personal computer, with the password known only to me. I will
maintain and secure all the data for a minimum of 3 years after the completion of the
study. At the end of 3 years, I will delete all computer files and shred hard copy notes
and other files relating to the study.
Data Analysis Technique
The current study included an inductive content analysis of the data. The analysis
included coding, categorizing, and abstracting. Specific categories of data were
identified and grouped, based on the group in which the data belong. Comparisons
between data and other observations were made to describe the phenomenon further,
increase understanding of the phenomenon, and generate knowledge regarding the
phenomenon. For the study, coding was used to describe each category of data
49
(Friedrich, Byrne, & Mumford, 2009; Jackson, Drummond, & Camara, 2007).
Participants’ interview responses were analyzed using Moustakas’ (1994) modified van
Kaam methodology from which core themes emerged. The modified can Kaam method
of analysis involves the classification of data obtained according to frequency of
occurrence (Moustakas, 1994).
Reliability and Validity
Reliability
In qualitative research, reliability is the adoption of research methods that are
generally accepted as legitimate (Collingridge & Gantt, 2008). Phenomenological indepth interviews are accepted and recognized by the research community and should
produce meaningful results (Collingridge & Gantt, 2008; Ospina, 2004). The study
consisted of in-depth interviews of the participants and produced meaningful results.
Validity
Content validity is a measure of how closely the sample represents the population
(Cooper & Schindler, 2003). In the study, content validity was checked by selecting
three individuals from the participant pool and asking them to review the interview
questions. The individuals determined the questions were valid and would measure the
phenomenon under investigation.
Transition and Summary
The preceding section contained a description of the study, including a review of
the purpose of the study. The section also contained a description of my role as the
researcher in the data collection process. The section provided a description of how
50
participants were selected and an outline of measures to ensure the ethical protection of
participants. Additionally, the section contained a description of the research method and
design, population from which the participants were drawn, data collection instrument,
data organization and analysis techniques, and the reliability and validity of the study.
The following section will contain an overview of the study, findings, the application to
professional practice, implications for social change, recommendations for further study,
a summary, and study conclusions.
51
Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change
The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the
phenomenon of followership characteristics that translate into good leadership skills.
Section 3 includes an overview of the study and a summary of the findings of the study
that includes conclusions for each research question along with a discussion of the
evidence collected and how it relates to followership literature. Section 3 also contains
applications for professional practice and implications for social change, a discussion of
recommendations for action, implications for further research, a summary of the study,
and a statement of conclusions drawn from the research.
Overview of Study
The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the
phenomenon of followership characteristics that translate into good leadership skills.
Creswell (2007) indicated a qualitative phenomenological study requires the researcher to
discover and describe the meaning of the lived experiences of individuals who have
knowledge about the phenomenon. The phenomenological research design was
appropriate to the qualitative methodology because I was able to gain access to the
respondents’ lived experiences and informed perceptions by conducting in-depth
interviews. The study participants were a purposeful sample of 20 midlevel managers
from the hospitality industry. The phenomenological approach undertaken in the study
was appropriate because the method aligned with trying to develop an understanding of
the phenomenon of followership based upon the lived experiences of the participants.
Bearden (2008) provided examples of applying the purposive sampling approach to
52
participants experienced in the research phenomenon. The research method for the study
added rich detail that enabled the documentation of existing knowledge about leadership
and helped to understand leadership from the perspective of followers (Olivares et al.,
2007; Ospina, 2004).
All 20 research participants responded to each of the 12 open-ended interview
questions to the best of their ability about their experiences and perceptions of
followership. The transcribed research data enabled the development of emerging themes
for each question. The analysis of the data involved Moustakas’s (1994) modified van
Kaam methodology from which core themes emerged. The modified van Kaam method
of analysis involves the classification of data obtained according to frequency of
occurrence (Moustakas, 1994). Words and phrases used most often reflect the important
concerns of the participants and the emerging concepts (White & Marsh, 2006).
The analysis of data included the following steps for the modified van Kaam
method (Moustakas, 1994):
1. Listing and preliminary grouping: This process known as horizontilization is
where a researcher finds statements in the participant interviews about how
the participants experiencing the topic studied. A researcher continues this
process by listing significant statements and treating each of these statements
as having equal worth.
2. Reduction and elimination: A researcher tests each identified statement for
two requirements:
53
a. Does it contain a moment of expression of the experience necessary and
sufficient for understanding it?
b. Is it possible to abstract and label it?
3. Clustering and thematizing the invariant constituents: A researcher groups the
remaining statements into thematic label or meaning units. These constituents
are the core themes of the experience.
4. Final identification of the invariant constituents and themes by application: At
this step, a researcher verifies the invariant constituents and their
accompanying theme against the records of the participants. The constituent
is discarded if not explicit or fully expressed.
5. Construct and individual textual description: Includes development of textural
description of what happened during the experience, including verbatim
examples.
6. Construct an individual structural description. Develop a composite
description of the meanings and essences of the experiences, representing the
group as a whole. (pp. 120-121)
The research questions for the study were as follows:
1. What are the lived experiences of midlevel managers from the hospitality
industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership traits that translate to
leadership skills?
54
2. What are the informed perceptions of midlevel managers in the hospitality
industry along the Gulf Coast regarding the followership traits that translate to
leadership skills?
The collected data were rich and provided compelling findings that the majority of the
participants understood the need for followership within their organization. The themes
that emerged were (a) organizational success tied to learning their position as a follower,
(b) interpersonal skills are important to followership, and (c) the relationship between
leader and followers has an effect on followership.
Presentation of the Findings
Common themes emerged from the 20 responses to the interview questions of the
volunteer research participants about their perceptions and lived experiences of
followership in their hospitality organizations. The analysis of the data from the
responses to the 12 interview questions (see Appendix C) provided empirical evidence
supporting the key emerging themes of the study. A discussion of themes, patterns, and
relationships, including any outliers and discrepancies found in the data, is included. The
following are outcomes that addressed the research questions.
Outcomes That Address Research Question 1: Participants’ Experience
Interview Question 1: What is your experience as it relates to the role of
followership in your organization? As shown in Table 1, the majority of the
participants (11 of 20) indicated the role of followership in their organization was
learning. Responses to Interview Question 1 are reflected generally in the following
participant responses. Participant F3 stated,
55
I try to be a good follower. With all of my leaders and mentors, I try to work with
them closely and learn as much as possible. I think just working with them and
being able to take constructive criticism from them helps me to be a good
follower in the organization.
Participant F6 noted,
I personally have had a very good experience here in the role of followership at
this property and I think that is because I have had some really good mentors that
I have worked for and I think that’s why I’ve been able to be a good follower
because I had leaders that were teachers and they were eager to see me grow in
the company and they were willing to help me. They were respectful towards me,
so I have had a very good experience as a follower within this particular
organization.
The remaining participants indicated the role of followership within their organizations
was related to initiative, to provide support for leaders, related to networking, able to
provide a balance of skills, and fulfilling.
Table 1
Experience as it Relates to the Role of Followership in Own Organization
Code
Learning the position
Related to initiative
Provide support to leaders
Fulfilling
Related to networking
Provide a balance of skills
Undervalued
n (N = 20)
11
2
2
2
1
1
1
%
55
10
10
10
5
5
5
56
Interview Question 3: In your experience what are the core competencies and
skills required of successful followers in general? As shown in Table 2, the top four
participants’ responses indicated the core competencies and skills required of successful
followers in general are good listener, interpersonal skills, communication skills, and
willing. Responses to Interview Question 3 are reflected generally in the following
participant responses. Participant F3 stated,
I think the biggest skill required is being able to be a good listener because you
have to be able to listen and comprehend what is being said, not always the person
that is out to make changes or corrections or to give advice. Just sometimes
listening to what is being said.
Participant M3 responded,
You definitely got to be a people person. You have to understand human psyche,
how to deal with difficult people, as well as, not just with the people that you
manage but your manager as well. How to get things the way you want done by
understanding their psyche. That is pretty important.
Participant M1 noted,
The core skill is communication. Communication is very important within our
industry because we deal with so many different people, so many different
departments. You have to know how to communicate people’s wants and needs
to every department, as well as your own.
Participant M7 stated, “The core skills—listening is the biggest and understanding and
willingness. I think those are the main three things you got to have.” The remaining
57
participants listed the following as core competencies and skills of followers in general:
ability to multitask, follow through, dedication, optimism, motivation, humility, training,
eagerness to learn, problem solving, critical decision making, honesty, and the ability to
accept criticism.
Interview Question 5: What is your experience as it relates to the
development of followers in general? As shown in Table 3, the majority of the
participants (11 of 20) indicated in their experience the development of followers in
general is related to leadership example and training progress. Responses to Interview
Question 5 are reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F2
stated, “By looking up to their immediate supervisor. By looking up to the person that is
over them, their boss or their immediate supervisor, and getting correct direction from
their immediate supervisor.”
Table 2
Experience as It Relates to Core Competencies and Skills of Followers in General
Code
Good listener
Interpersonal skills
Communication skills
Willing
Multitasking
Follow through
Dedication
Optimism
Motivation
Humility
Training
Eagerness to learn
Problem solving
Critical decision making
n (N = 20)
6
5
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
%
30
25
15
15
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
(table continues)
58
Code
Honest
Accept criticism
n (N = 20)
1
1
%
5
5
Participant F1 noted,
Developing followers. A lot of, the main thing I think is training. We have a lot
of people come in and they have either done their own thing for a long time and
they have never really had to follow anybody or anything like that so training
them on what to do and how to do it and the way we do it here is the main thing
we have to work on.
The remainder of the participants indicated in their experience the development of
followers in general relates to leadership development, team development, follower
acceptance, the acceptance of leadership, and the leader as a teacher.
Table 3
Experience as It Relates to the Development of Followers in General
Code
Related to leadership example
Related to training progress
Related to leadership development
Related to team development
Related to follower acceptance
Related to acceptance of leadership
Related to leader as teacher
No response
Not a good follower
n (N = 20)
7
4
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
%
35
25
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
Interview Question 7: What is your experience as it relates to the relationship
between followers and leaders in general? As shown in Table 4, a majority of the
participants’ responses (11 of 20) indicated follower role is intertwined with the leader
59
role and the relationship is based on trust. Responses to Interview Question 7 are
reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F1 stated,
My experience between followers and leaders is for the most part good. I think
that in my case making sure that your followers do know there is a difference
between friendship and your work in that there are responsibilities that of course
go along with both that there is a fine line that we as leaders do not cross with
those followers to make sure that there still remains a point of leadership. If I am
the one giving the directions, then I expect that our friendship is not going to sway
their completion of what I ask them to do.
Participant F5 responded,
As being on both sides of that, again I think a good leader was a good follower
and that continues on. I am a follower to my director and I have someone who is
working, reporting directly to me. Therefore, again you have to lead by example
and you are going to have to be a good leader to have a good follower.
The remainder of the participants indicated in their experience the relationship between
follower and leader is based upon teamwork, communications, relationships, and profit
motivation and is vital to leadership.
Table 4
Experience as It Relates to the Relationship Between Followers and Leaders in General
Code
Follower role intertwined with leader role
Based on trust
Based on teamwork
Based on relationships
n (N = 20)
6
5
3
3
%
30
25
15
15
(table continues)
60
Code
Based on communication
Based on profit motivation
Vital to leadership
n (N = 20)
3
1
1
%
5
5
5
Interview Question 9: In your experience, what are any additional relevant
factors that affect followership in general? As shown in Table 5, the top five
responses indicated the additional relevant factors that affect followership in general are
attitude, respect, training, work environment, and education. Responses to Interview
Question 9 are reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F9
responded, “I believe that the persona that you carry in the office, just the way the air
feels. I don’t know how to explain that, but the mood of the team I think has a lot to do
with that.”
Participant F5 stated,
I definitely feel that in order to be a good follower, you have to respect the person
that you are working for. If you don’t respect that person, you are not really
going to want to do what they are asking you to do. I do feel that education plays
a role in this because the education kind of gives you the big picture of things.
Participant F10 answered, “In this particular environment, there could be a lot more oneon-one training from the leaders to the followers. I would like to see that happen.”
Participant M2 noted,
It all depends on who is leading here, if they are confident, if they are worthy of
the, if you are going to follow that person, if someone is going to be worthy, if
you are set on ways and stuff. I am trying to get the point across here. Can you
61
repeat that question one more time? It’s the people, the environment around you
and just people’s conversations and how they approach certain things.
Participant F6 responded,
I think a person’s education level has a great impact on, you know, how well of a
follower you are because I think the more education you have, the more, maybe
the more open-minded you are and the more, I mean an educated person is
someone who, you know, wants to grow and learn and they understand that in
order to do that, you’ve got to follow your leader and learn from that person.
The additional relevant factors affecting followership mentioned by the remaining
participants were loyalty, micromanagement, dedication, happy at work, organizational
culture, communication, fairness, openness, follow example, teamwork, cohesiveness,
trust, and compatibility.
Table 5
Any Additional Relevant Factors That Affect Followership in General Based on
Experience
Code
Attitude
Respect
Training
Work environment
Education
Loyalty
Micromanagement
Dedication
Happy at work
Organizational culture
Communication
Fairness
n (N = 20)
5
4
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
%
25
20
20
15
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
(table continues)
62
Code
Openness
Follow example
Teamwork
Cohesiveness
Trust
Compatibility
n (N = 20)
1
1
1
1
1
1
%
5
5
5
5
5
5
Interview Question 11: What is your experience, as it relates to the influence
of followership in general? As shown in Table 6, the top three participants’ responses
(14 of 20) indicated their experience with the influence of followership in general are it
provides good example/influence, provides career/personal development, and is vital to
mission/success. Responses to Interview Question 11 are reflected generally in the
following participant responses. Participant F2 stated, “We want to set a good example
so that we will have a good influence on the people that are watching us.”
Participant M6 responded,
Um, it started off at a less than desirable property in Colorado when I was in
school and that was a unique experience in that it really taught me the negative
ways to do things, the incorrect ways to run a property, the incorrect ways to
handle a guest, to lead your staff, so you got a good idea of that’s not what I want
to do or that’s not how you handle that. Then I got several good experiences from
school, you know educators and leading myself and my peers on to the correct
management styles that can create good followers and create a good staff and
therefore make your bosses happy and then I did have the opportunity to move
down here and worked with lots of different people, kind of a different culture as
you can say so lots of different things I got to experience and since this
63
organization had the opportunity to really develop more as a leader and therefore
strengthen my followers as well.
Participant F14 noted,
The influence that a follower has in a restaurant business is probably one of the
most important roles there is in the organization. They are responsible for
basically taking the vision of the owners/general managers of the restaurant and
portraying it to the rest of the staff. They have to be able to encourage—Basically
the perception of my experience is the exact same thing. Like I said, I basically
took everything good of any general manager that I was ever underneath,
compiled it and I disregarded all of that and the employees that worked
underneath me were able to see that and responded very well to my leadership
towards them.
The remaining participants indicated in their experience, the influence of followership in
general is related to providing inspiration, motivation, willingness, provide respect and
trust, provide self-reliance, provide decision making, and the roles are intertwined.
Table 6
Experience as It Relates to the Influence of Followership in General
Code
Provide good example/influence
Provide career/personal development
Vital to success/mission
Provide inspiration, motivation, and willingness
Provide respect and trust
Provide self-reliance
Roles intertwine
Provide decision-making
No response
n (N = 20)
6
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
%
30
20
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
64
Conclusions That Address Research Question 1
Varying opinions exist about followership traits and how these traits can
potentially translate to good leadership skills. The researcher has drawn conclusions
about the relationship between followership traits and good leadership based upon the
lived experiences of midlevel hospitality managers and their responses to the six
interview questions that address their lived experiences related to Research Question 1.
The responses of the participants regarding their lived experiences confirmed that the role
of followership in their organization is one of learning.
Kelley (2008) indicated the characteristics of leadership and of followership are
similar. Kellerman (2007) offered that good leadership is about learning. Understanding
leads to developing good leadership (Adair, 2008), and this increased awareness will
improve organizational performance (Dixon, 2009). The responses of the participants
showed that the top four core competencies and skills of followers in general are being a
good listener, having good communication, having good interpersonal skills, and being
willing to accomplish the task. These skills will translate to good leadership (Kelley,
2008). The participants’ responses about the development of followers indicated that
their development is related to leadership example and to their training, which supports
the notion that learning to lead is supported by the example set by the leader for the
followers and the increased awareness will improve performance (Dixon, 2009). The
responses of the participants about their experience as it relates to the relationship
between followers and leaders in general indicated the role of the leader and the role of
65
the follower are intertwined. Kelley (2008) argued the skills learned by followers are the
same skills of leadership.
Adair (2008) pointed out organizations fail or succeed based on the output and
input of employees. The employees succeed or fail to succeed based upon the leader–
followership relationship. When asked about additional relevant factors that affect
followership in general, the respondents identified attitude, respect, training, the work
environment, and education as the top five factors. The conclusion to be drawn is as
pointed out by Bjugstad et al. (2006): followership is the ability to follow directions and
support the efforts of the leader. When asked about their experience as it relates to the
influence of followership in general, the participants indicated followership should
provide a good example, provide a path for career and personal development, and is vital
to mission and organization success, which appears to support Dixon (2008), who noted
it is up to the followers to ensure an organization functions in an effective manner.
Outcomes That Address Research Question 2: Participants’ Perception
Interview Question 2: What is your perception of the role of followership in
your organization? As shown in Table 7, more than half of the participants (12 of 20)
perceived the role of follower in their organization to relate to organizational mission or
success and as vital to individual success. Responses to Interview Question 2 are
reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F5 stated,
Here at the hotel, we definitely need followers in order to make our products
succeed. The management team alone cannot do it, so our goal is we have got to
66
get it across to our employees the importance of their role in order to make this a
success.
Participant F1 noted,
Our organization would like these followers to prove themselves. Granted, they
are making $10 an hour and I am using that just as the hypothetical, but if you can
do your regular responsibilities and then be able to do above and beyond, then at
that point you have proven that you are a good follower to earn the opportunity to
be up for a promotion and/or salary or wage increase or up for a management of
some sort.
Remaining participants noted they believe the role of followership in their organization
relates to teamwork, loyalty, organization vision, leadership, and a balance of skills.
Table 7
Perception of the Role of Followership in Your Organization
Code
Related to organizational mission/success
Vital to individual success
No answer
Related to teamwork
Related to loyalty
Related to organization vision
Related to leadership
Related to a balance of skills
Negative bad attitude
n (N = 20)
7
5
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
%
35
25
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
Interview Question 4: What do you perceive to be the core competencies and
skills of successful followers in your organization? As shown in Table 8, four of 20
participants perceived the core competencies and skills of successful followers in their
67
organization to be a good listener and motivation. Responses to Interview Question 4 are
reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F6 stated,
What I have seen from the folks in this organization that are successful followers,
I see those people as self-motivated and I see them as people who are driven or
self-driven and also, to me, those people have a certain level of confidence about
themselves that makes them a good follower.
Participant F7 responded, “You need common sense, patience. You need to be a good
listener and observer and question.” The remaining participants listed reliability,
punctual, follow through, honesty, confident, dedication, hard worker, interpersonal
skills, teamwork, willing, observant, initiative, compliance, modest, loyalty, common
sense, patience, and questioning as their perception of the core competencies and skills of
successful followers in their organization.
Table 8
Perception of Core Competencies and Skills of Successful Followers in Your
Organization
Code
Good listener
Motivation
Reliability
Punctual
Follow through
Honesty
Confident
Dedication
Hard worker
Interpersonal skills
Teamwork
Willing
n (N = 20)
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
%
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
(table continues)
68
Code
Observant
Initiative
Compliance
Modest
Loyalty
Common sense
Patience
Questioning
n (N = 20)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
%
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Interview Question 6: What is your perception of the development of
followers in your organization? As shown in Table 9, six of 20 participants perceived
the development of followers in their organization to be expected development/training.
Four of 20 perceived the development of followers as left up to the individual and three
of 20 perceived the development of followers as not the primary focus. Responses to
Interview Question 6 are reflected generally in the following participant responses.
Participant F6 stated, “Getting the correct knowledge from my boss to be able to do my
job better.” Participant F11 responded, “My perception in this organization is that we are
given the opportunity by all of our leaders from the top on down so it just depends on the
individual themselves as to how far they want to take that.” Participant F6 answered,
I think we have some room to grow in the area of training. Here in this
organization over the past several months, we seem to be getting better with that.
We have gotten some good leaders here on the property who understands the
importance of training and we are starting to see that now, but we definitely in the
past have had a lack of training. But again, I think that is getting better. That
would be the number one thing that I would say.
69
The remainder of the participants indicated their perception of the development of
followers in their organization relates to delegation of tasks, the providing of tools to do
job, positive to allow to move up, related to the leader as role model, feedback is
necessary, and related to mentoring/coaching.
Table 9
Perception of the Development of Followers in Your Organization.
Code
Expected development/training
Left up to the individual
Not the primary focus
Delegation of tasks
Need to be provided tools
Positive to move up
Related to leader as role model
Feedback necessary
Mentoring/coaching
n (N = 20)
6
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
%
30
20
15
10
5
5
5
5
5
Interview Question 8: What is your perception of the relationship between
followers and leaders in your organization? As shown in Table 10, the majority of the
participants (13 of 20) indicated they perceive the relationship between leader and
follower as based on interpersonal relationships and teamwork. Responses to Interview
Question 8 are reflected generally in the following participant responses. Participant F7
stated, “Within the organization it would depend on who your leader is—the relationship
that you develop between yourself and your leader.” Participant F5 responded,
Here at the hotel, I think this is an area that we are working on. Within the last
year or so, we have gone through several changes management wise and I think
that is benefitting the hotel. We are trying to get everyone on the same page as to
how we want this establishment run and I think that is working well.
70
The remaining participants noted their perception of the relationship between leaders and
followers in their organization was based on trust, related to the roles overlapping, was
based on communication, and was based on profit margin.
Table 10
Perception of the Relationship Between Followers and Leaders in Your Organization
Code
Interpersonal relationship based
Based on teamwork
Based on trust
Roles overlap
Communication based
Not apparent
Need more concern for followers
Profit motivation
n (N = 20)
10
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
%
50
15
10
5
5
5
5
5
Interview Question 10: What do you perceive to be additional relevant
factors affecting followership in your organization? As show in Table 11, the top four
participants’ responses indicate the additional relevant factors that affect followership in
their organization are communication, training, education, and relationship with the
organization. Responses to Interview Question 10 are reflected generally in the
following participant responses. Participant F9 stated,
I think communication is a big issue. I think that, you know if we had better ways
of communicating with our front desk staff between us and higher up
management, I believe that it would be more successful than we have then.
Participant F3 replied,
My experience is that I always try to stay in touch with everybody. I try to make
sure that I am available if they have questions. I try to make sure training is
71
available. If there is training that needs to be done, sometimes doing one-on-one
training or doing group training. Just taking in their ideas, putting it into motion
and sometimes it works and sometimes it don’t.
Participant M1 noted,
Other factors, um, I think the work history is a big one, but education is another
one. You can always, at least I know from the people that I have hired and people
who are no longer with the company—education has been a big one and it is not
that they went to college or graduated, it is that, you know, they weren’t high
school dropouts. They were to stick through high school and get a degree.
Somebody who is persistent with what they sign on to do and they are not, I
guess, quitters.
Participant F4 answered,
I just feel like really just have to find a good fit. Like I said, I have worked for
this company for years and I have seen a lot of movement in the company to
different hotels and I have seen a lot of movement back to original places and so
forth because it is a better fit with your leaders and followers.
The remaining participants identified the following as what they perceive to be additional
relevant factors affecting followership in their organization: distance from manager,
perception of the leader, ambition, organizational culture, upbringing, interpersonal skills,
growth, independence, work history, commitment, intelligence, self-discipline, trust,
social status, physical characteristics, respect, and attitude.
72
Table 11
Perception of Additional Relevant Factors Affecting Followership in Your Organization
Code
Communication
Training
Education
Relationship with organization
Distance from managers
Perception of the leader
Ambition
Organization culture
Upbringing
Interpersonal
Growth
Independence
Work history
Commitment
Intelligence
Self-discipline
Trust
Social status
Physical characteristics
Respect
Attitude
n (N = 20)
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
%
15
10
10
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Interview Question 12: What is your perception about the influence of
followership on the organization’s success? As shown in Table 12, the majority of the
participants (12 of 20) indicated they perceive the influence of followership on their
organization’s success as vital to success and the leader–follower roles are intertwined.
Responses to Interview Question 12 are reflected generally in the following participant
responses. Participant F4 stated, “Followers are very influenced. You know, you can
influence them very easily and it has to be a positive experience that you’re influencing
them on otherwise there won’t be success in the organization.” Participant M5 answered,
73
Well, I think it takes everyone. You know, I think we all work together whether
you are the head of engineering, sales office manager, front desk manager, café
manager—I believe they all work together and to make this organization or this
hotel the best hotel on the beach, we all have to work together and that includes
the front desk staff. My rule that I have always learned is the 15–5 rule. Fifteen
feet of knowledge to five people you greet and if you can teach that to the front
desk staff and they see you doing it or the engineering staff of the café staff, that
everybody’s gonna greet that person and we are not that big hotel, but we are a
small hotel and if we can make—I believe if we get someone in here, we are
going to get them back again because of our hospitality.
The remaining participants indicated their perception of the influence of followership on
the organizations success is related to a highly developed sense of purpose, is vital to
development, is vital to acceptance of responsibility, is key to self-management,
consistency, and development is slow.
Table 12
Perception of the Influence of Followership on the Organization’s Success
Code
Vital to success
Leader/follower roles intertwined
Help develop a sense of purpose
Vital to development
Vital to acceptance of responsibility
Key to self management
Necessary for brand awareness
Consistency
Development is slow
No response
Interviews
n (N = 20)
%
9
45
3
15
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
74
Conclusions That Address Research Question 2
Varying opinions exist about followership traits and how these traits can
potentially translate into good leadership skills. The researcher drew conclusions about
the relationship between followership traits and good leadership based upon the lived
experiences of midlevel hospitality managers and their responses to the six interview
questions that addressed their informed perception related to Research Question 2.
The responses of the participants regarding their informed perception confirmed
that the role of followership in their organization related to organizational and individual
success. Dixon (2009) contended that organizational success could be linked to
improved awareness of followership. The responses of the participants showed that in
their experience in their organization the top two core competencies and skills of
followers were being a good listener and being motivated. Boerner et al. (2007) noted
performance outcomes are the result of followers’ trust, agreement on values, cohesion,
satisfaction, and motivation of followers. These skills will translate into good leadership
(Kelley, 2008). The participants’ perception of the development of followers in their
organization indicated their development as followers is usually the responsibility of the
individual or not a primary focus, which could result in poor organizational performance
(Dixon, 2009).
The responses of the participants about their perception as it relates to the
relationship between followers and leaders is based upon interpersonal relationships,
teamwork, and trust, which supported Boerner et al. (2007). When asked about their
perception of additional relevant factors that affect followership, the respondents
75
identified communication, training, education, and relationship with the organization as
the top four factors affecting followership. Gill et al. (2010) indicated through
communication, hospitality managers can instill the vision, mission, goals, and objectives
of an organization. Dixon (2009) contended increased knowledge improves awareness
and improves organizational performance. When asked about their perception of the
influence of followership on the success of their organization, the majority indicated it is
vital to the success and that the leader and follower roles are intertwined. Adair (2008)
and Kelley (2008) pointed out the skills required of followers are the same as the skills
required of leaders. Organizational success depends upon the performance of the
followers and leaders and the skills they possess (Dixon, 2009).
Emerging Themes
A phenomenological design was appropriate for the research study because the
qualitative method identifies core meaning derived from participants’ lived experiences
and informed perceptions with a specific phenomenon (Creswell, 2003, 2007, 2009;
Moustakas, 1994), such as the phenomenon of followership. The core meaning emerged
as themes that captured most of the content in three specific areas: organizational success
and learning, interpersonal skills, and the relationship between leader and followers.
Emerging Theme 1: Organizational success tied to learning. Emerging Theme
1 validated and emphasized the existence of a relationship between organizational
success and followers learning their positions, displaying initiative by learning, and
providing support for the leaders. When the participants were asked about their
experience as it related to the role of followership in their organizations, 70% indicated
76
their experience as it related to the role of followership in their organization was related
to providing support, displaying initiative by learning, and learning their position. When
the participants were asked their perception as it related to the role of followership in
their organization, 60% indicated their perception as it related to the role of followership
in their organization was related to organizational and individual success. The
participants’ experience indicated the role was about learning and their perception was
that it was about organizational and individual success. Kellerman (2007) noted that
good leadership is about learning. Dixon (2009) contended that increased awareness and
knowledge increase organizational performance. Both leaders and followers exhibit the
same skills traits (Kelley, 2008).
Emerging Theme 2: Interpersonal skills. Emerging Theme 2 emphasized the
core competencies and skills of followers in general. When participants were asked to
describe their experience as it related to core competencies and skills of followers in
general, 85% indicated interpersonal skills such as listening skills and communication
skills were core competencies. Daft (2011) identified both of these skills were imperative
for good leadership. Kelley (2008) pointed out that both leaders and followers exhibit the
same skills and traits. The participants’ perception of the core competencies in their
organization did not support this emerging theme, with only two participants identifying
interpersonal skills as a core competency or skill of successful followers. The
participants identified 20 different core competencies and skills that related to their
perception of the core competencies and skills of successful followers in their
organization.
77
Emerging Theme 3: Relationship between leader and followers. Emerging
Theme 3 validated and emphasized the importance of the relationship between leaders
and followers, as suggested by Adair (2008). When participants were asked about their
experience as it related to the relationship between followers and leaders, 85% indicated
the relationship between followers and leaders was based on trust and teamwork and that
the roles of followers and leaders are intertwined. When participants were asked about
their perception of the relationship between followers and leaders in their organization,
75% indicated the relationship between followers and leaders was based on trust,
teamwork, and interpersonal relationships. Organizational performance is based upon the
output and input of employees, and employees succeed or fail based upon the leader–
follower relationship (Adair, 2008).
Applications to Professional Practice
The findings of the current study have the potential to apply to professional
practice in business in several ways. First, the results of the study built upon the existing
literature and provided rich data to existing knowledge about followership and its
relationship to leadership. A key emerging theme of the study was the importance of the
relationship between leaders and followers, as noted by Adair (2008). The improvement
of the relationship between leaders and followers will lead to improved communication
and ultimately improved organizational performance. “Organizations should educate and
create performance standards concerning the concerning the responsibilities and
opportunities for staff to build successful and productive relationships between leaders
and followers” (Bearden, 2007, p. 114).
78
Knowledge obtained from the study may help to provide understanding of how
leaders and followers in the hospitality industry perceive leadership and adds to the
literature that may help to improve leadership practices. The data obtained from the
study have the potential to be amalgamated with other known data to develop training
programs that make the most of and improve upon the relationship between leaders and
followers by helping to explain and understand the follower traits that will translate into
good leadership traits. The training has the potential to improve leadership at all levels of
an organization. Second, the information gained from the study may also allow for the
development of training programs emphasizing specific followership traits that translate
directly to leadership skills. Organizations of the future will need to have effective
followers considering the link between organizational success and the combined efforts
of both leaders and followers (Dixon & Westbrook, 2003).
Implications for Social Change
The current study served to expand the knowledge of leadership from a
followership perspective by exploring insights into how midlevel managers in the
hospitality industry perceive followership. Both leadership and followership provide
value when defining the relationship between leaders and followers in the hospitality
industry. Adair (2008) noted researchers should study leadership and followership in
concert because a crossover exists between them. Individuals move freely between the
role of leader and the role of follower. The success of organizations depends upon
individuals being able to perform both roles and being able to take the lead when
necessary and follow as required (Miller, 2007). In terms of numbers, followers
79
generally dominate organizations; there are always more followers than leaders within an
organization (Dixon & Westbrook, 2003). Deeper understanding of the phenomenon of
followership may provide insights into the methods to improve understanding of the
relationship between leader and follower that will improve organizational success.
The information and knowledge gained from understanding the relationship
between leader and follower is applicable beyond leadership and followership. Agho
(2009) purported followership is an important trait of one’s character. Agho also noted
followership “has remained an undervalued and underappreciated concept among
management development practitioners and researchers” (p. 159). The framework of the
current study provided a method of understanding the experiences and perceptions of
midlevel hospitality managers regarding followership. The information gained from the
study may improve the understanding of followership and the characteristics of a good
follower. The research expanded the understanding of the process of leadership and the
characteristics and behaviors that leaders at all levels of business should exhibit.
Identifying the characteristics of followership has the potential to allow for a better
method of identifying those who are best suited for leadership training. The training may
improve leadership at all levels of an organization. The information gained may also
allow for the development of training programs emphasizing specific followership traits
that translate directly into leadership skills.
Recommendations for Action
Based on the findings of the study and the emerging themes, it is recommended
that midlevel hospitality managers continue to learn about followership and its apparent
80
connection and relationship with leadership in general. Specifically, leaders of
hospitality organizations should provide opportunities for education and training by
developing programs specifically for the culture of an organization to facilitate positionspecific learning for followers and to provide support for the leaders. The initial effort to
understand the perceptions of followership among midlevel hospitality managers should
lead to an increased awareness of the knowledge that good followers can become good
leaders with improved interpersonal skills such as listening skills and communication
skills. Further awareness and the examination of midlevel hospitality managers’
perceptions of the relationships emphasize the importance of the relationship between
leaders and followers, as suggested by Adair (2008). Leaders of hospitality organizations
should work toward strengthening the relationship between followers and leaders and
develop or add to leadership training programs that reinforce that the relationship
between followers and leaders is based on trust and teamwork and that the roles of
followers and leaders are intertwined.
Recommendations for Further Study
One of the reasons to use a qualitative method in the study was to look at the
phenomenon of followership as it relates to leadership because it is important to
understand any social phenomenon from the point of view of those who have experienced
the phenomenon (Opsina, 2004). A recommendation for further study would be to repeat
the study at varying levels of leadership within the hospitality industry and within
different geographic locations to study the point of view of others who have experienced
the phenomenon. Quantitative studies may involve exploring the relationships between
81
followers; their leaders; and demographic factors such as age, experience, and education
level of the participants. An additional study may involve the use of a followership
survey to help identify and refine follower characteristics as they relate to leadership
development. The focus of the quantitative study could be different populations of
managers and followers and the study could yield additional rich data. Future findings
may provide better understanding of the phenomenon of followership and how good
followers become good leaders.
One area that was deficient in the study was the amount of literature and studies
conducted on hospitality management. Researchers should conduct additional studies
within hospitality management concentrating upon leadership and followership. A lack
of understanding of the nature of the hospitality management as a whole was evident.
The participants were knowledgeable about the management of their particular property
and job but were not as aware of the nature of hospitality management in general.
Reflections
The results of the study solidified the notion for the researcher that a qualitative
phenomenological approach is an effective method for the investigation of the
phenomenon of followership within an organization. The study included 20 midlevel
managers who shared their lived experiences and informed perceptions of their
understanding of followership. The researcher’s preconceived idea about the nature of
the data collection and the data analysis process influenced the research experience. The
researcher was not prepared for the amount of time required to schedule appointments
and make arrangements to work around the participants’ busy schedules. The data
82
collection process required nearly constant revision as new circumstances arose. The
nature and complexity of the process of data analysis was challenging. The challenge
was the result of preconceived ideas of the nature of the data analysis process and what
was required to prepare the data for the actual analysis.
The data collection process was designed to reduce the effects of the researcher’s
personal bias about the nature of followership to allow the participants to answer the
interview questions based upon their opinions and not the opinions of the researcher. The
researcher also confirmed the importance of followers in the process of leadership.
Leadership is more than the traits, characteristics, behaviors of the leader and the style of
the leader in a given situation. Without followers actually completing the tasks, the
leader is powerless; consequently, the study of the phenomenon of followership is vital to
the study of leadership. Leaders and followers each possess the same traits,
characteristics, and behaviors (Kelley, 2008).
Summary and Study Conclusions
The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the
phenomenon of followership characteristics that translate into good leadership skills.
Three themes emerged from the study. The first theme was a relationship between
organizational success and followers learning and performing in their positions,
displaying initiative, and providing support for their leaders. Individuals within an
organization transition between the role of follower and the role of leader continually,
and the success of organizations depends upon performance in both roles (Bearden, 2008;
Dixon, 2009). Kelley (2008) noted followership and leadership are “complementary, not
83
competitive paths to organizational contribution. . . . [We] must have great leaders and
great followers” (p. 41). The second theme was listening skills and communication are
core competencies of followers. Managers can improve revenue and responsiveness by
improving strategic positioning, critical thinking, communication, and interpersonal skills
(Aree et al., 2010). Many of the same skills are required of good followers (Gill et al.,
2010). The third theme was the relationship between leader and follower is based upon
trust and teamwork, and the roles of followers and leaders are intertwined. Leadership
that places a strong emphasis on followers’ needs, values, and morals allows and
encourages the building of trust between leader and follower (Northouse, 2007). An
increased sense of trust and transparency heightens the potential of followership within
the leader–follower dynamic (Avolio & Reichard, 2008).
There are more followers in any organization than there are leaders; followers
dominate all organizations (Dixon, 2009). To provide quality professional development
in the future, it will be necessary to have a better understanding of the nature of
followership and the traits and behaviors they exhibit. Adair (2008) contended
followership is part of leadership and to “develop great leaders one follower at a time” (p.
137), a better and more thorough understanding of followership is necessary. The current
study has added to the body of knowledge and has increased the understanding of
followership traits as they relate to leadership skills.
84
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Appendix A: Letter of Invitation
Greetings,
I am writing to introduce my doctoral research project and myself, as well as to
solicit your help in my research. I am James H. Schindler, a Walden University doctoral
candidate studying Leadership.
My research interest is in the areas of leadership and followership. Traditionally,
in management, leaders are given the most attention. However, leadership alone does not
provide the complete answer to achieving and maintaining success in an organization.
There is increasing recognition that followership (the ability of employees to effectively
follow the directives and support the efforts of a leader to maximize organizational
achievement) in addition to leadership plays a fundamental role in improving
organizational success. Effective leadership is the result of a combination of the work of
both leaders and followers. The impetus for this study is that there is little research about
how leaders perceive followership.
Conventional research has focused on leadership practices and less emphasis has
been placed on the role of followership. The purpose of this research study is to explore
the perceptions of followership of midlevel managers in hospitality organizations. This
study will focus on the characteristics and practices of midlevel managers to comprehend
more about the phenomenon of followership. The information and research from this
study will provide significant understanding of followership processes and leadership
within organizations. The additional recognition and awareness to this facet of leadership
has motivated my pursuit to uncover further knowledge about this topic.
I would like to ask you as a midlevel manager within your organization to
volunteer to participate in this study. As a volunteer participant you will be interviewed
face-to-face for approximately thirty to forty-five (30-45) minutes to answer questions
that will explore your perceptions of followership. If you are a willing volunteer please
contact me at XXXXXXXXX. I look forward to hearing from soon.
Sincerely,
James H. Schindler
100
Appendix B: Informed Consent
You are invited to take part in a research study of the nature of followership in the
hospitality industry along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. You were chosen for the
study because of your membership in the target population of midlevel managers with at
least one direct report in the hospitality industry.
This form is part of a process called ―informed consent to allow you to understand this
study before deciding whether to take part.
This study is being conducted by James H. Schindler, who is a doctoral student at
Walden University. Research gathered in this study will be used to explore the lived
experiences of midlevel managers in the hospitality industry along the Gulf coast.
Background Information:
The purpose of this study is to explore the lived experiences of midlevel managers
regarding their understanding of followership and its relationship to leadership.
Procedures:
If you agree to be in this study, you will be asked to:
Participate in an individual interview of 30-45 minutes regarding your perceptions and
lived experiences of followership. he interview will be audio taped for analysis by the
researcher. After transcription of your interview, you will be given the opportunity to
review the transcription of your responses to ensure accuracy.
Voluntary Nature of the Study:
Your participation will involve discussing issues and concerns related to the research
purpose and is completely voluntary. If you choose not to participate or to withdraw
from the study for whatever reason or at any time, you can do so without penalty or loss
of benefit to yourself.
Risks and Benefits of Being in the Study:
In this research, there are no foreseeable risks to you. Although there may be no direct
benefit to you, the possible benefit of your participation will help to provide further
explanations that will develop additional understanding of leadership and follower
practices.
Compensation:
Although participants will not be compensated, your participation is greatly appreciated.
Confidentiality:
As a participant, your privacy will be kept strictly confidential. Your name will be
transformed to an alphanumeric digit to assure confidentiality and will be kept so that
verification of the transcripts may be attained. Once the study is completed, all records
101
containing the identification numbers will be destroyed. The results of the research study
may be published but your name will not be used and your results will be maintained in
confidence.
Contacts and Questions:
You may ask any questions you have now. Or if you have questions later, you may
contact the researcher via telephone XXXXXXXXX or email XXXXXXXXXXXXXX..
If you want to talk privately about your rights as a participant, you can call Dr. XXXXX
XXXXXXX. She is the Walden University representative who can discuss this with you.
Her phone number is XXXXXXXXXXX, extension XXXX. Walden University‘s
approval number for this study is 11-03-11-0174613 and it expires on November 2, 2012.
The researcher will give you a copy of this form to keep.
Statement of Consent:
I have read the above information and I feel I understand the study well enough to make a
decision about my involvement. By signing below, I am agreeing to the terms described
above.
Printed Name of Participant_______________________________________
Date of consent______________
Participant‘s Written or Electronic Signature___________________________________
Researcher‘s Written or Electronic Signature___________________________________
Electronic signatures are regulated by the Uniform Electronic Transactions Act. Legally,
an "electronic signature" can be the person‘s typed name, their email address, or any
other identifying marker. An electronic signature is just as valid as a written signature as
long as both parties have agreed to conduct the transaction electronically.
102
Appendix C: Interview Questions
1. What is your experience as it relates to the role of followership in your
organization?
2. What is your perception of the role of followership in your organization?
3. In your experience what are the core competencies and skills required of
successful followers in general?
4. What do you perceive to be the core competencies and skills of successful
followers in your organization?
5. What is your experience as it relates to the development of followers in general?
6. What is your perception of the development of followers in your organization?
7. What is your experience as it relates to the relationship between followers and
leaders in general?
8. What is your perception of the relationship between followers and leaders in your
organization?
9. In your experience, what are any additional relevant factors that affect
followership in general?
10. What do you perceive to be additional relevant factors affecting followership in
your organization?
11. What is your experience, as it relates to the influence of followership in general?
12. What is your perception about the influence of followership on the organization’s
success?
103
Curriculum Vitae
JAMES H. SCHINDLER
SUMMARY OF QUALIFICATIONS
Accomplished, proven, and motivated leader, manager, educator, and former U.S. Air
Force officer offers a career history reflecting over 35 years of exemplary service in the
Human Resource Development, Management, Training, and Education environments as
well as an honorable and distinguished military career.
STRENGTHS
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Excellent communication and interpersonal skills.
Polished public speaker - equally accomplished writer.
Exceptional computer skills.
Proven and successful personnel development manager, leader, and motivator.
Highly skilled negotiator.
EDUCATION
Doctorate of Business Administration in Leadership (Candidate, estimated graduation
date Jan 2012) Walden University, Minneapolis, MN
Master of Science in Personnel Management (1989)
Troy State University, Montgomery, AL
Bachelor of Science in Biology and Chemistry (1977)
University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL
CERTIFICATION
Professional in Human Resource Management (PHR) Society of Human Resource
Management (2007)
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
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Full time offsite Faculty, Department of Undergraduate Business, Columbia
Southern University, Orange Beach, AL May 2009 – present
Currently teach Principles of Leadership, Human Resource Management, and
International Human Resource Management.
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Chair, Department of Undergraduate Business, Columbia Southern University,
Orange Beach, AL Sept 2008- May 2009
Design and develop new undergraduate business courses and maintain existing
courses in the latest course development and design techniques. Primary for
recruiting, hiring, training, supervising, evaluating and terminating coordinators,
faculty and course writers within the undergraduate business department. Interact
with and assist other CSU departments. Respond to student questions and
problems. Establish and maintain an Advisory Board. Assist with other
Academic Related Activities.
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Associate Dean of Curriculum and Faculty Development, Columbia Southern
University, Orange Beach, AL Aug 2007- Sept 2008.
Assist in researching potential programs and propose new programs to the
curriculum committee. Supervise and provide assignments for the Instructional
Systems Design Team and the Faculty Support Team. Assist the CSU HR
department in the recruitment of new faculty and course writers as needed.
Interact with IT, the Finance Department, Student Services and other
administrative units as needed. Formulate a comprehensive and ongoing faculty
training program, and assign and supervise faculty development personnel.
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Assistant Dean of Academic Affairs, Columbia Southern University, Orange
Beach, AL July 2004- Aug 2007.
Responsible for the in-house coordination for the Department of Business
Administration online courses. This includes in coordination with Academic
Committee to select text and develop online course materials. In addition, serve
as Professor for Employment Law, Staffing, Training and Development, and
Essentials of Research courses.
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Vice President of Operations - American College of Prehospital Medicine,
Navarre FL, March 2000 – September 2001
Responsible for the Operations Management of the College, including faculty
development and training, Management Information Systems administration and
support, student services policy development, curriculum review/evaluation,
quality assurance of courses taught, office administration, student consumer
services, human resource management and other activities necessary to ensure
optimum organizational productivity. Developed and implemented the plan that
led to upgrade of the entire curriculum to an online delivery system. Students
gained capability to enroll, study, and take examinations for all courses entirely
online, reducing student complaints by one-half. Developed and implemented the
successful reaccreditation plan. Results: the Distance Education and Training
Council approved the five-year reaccreditation of the College. Developed, wrote,
and taught courses in Human Resource Management, Human Relations,
Supervision, Leadership, Training, and Public Speaking.
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Consultant – Barr Group, Gulf Shores, AL, April 1999 – October 1999
Served as Assistant Project Coordinator and Instructor for a large Federal
government contract course. Assisted in design, development, and delivery of
course materials to educate over 3000 federal employees about the applicability of
Information Management Systems both inside their organization and in the world
around them. Received rave reviews from students and supervisors alike.
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Director of Education – Columbia Southern University, Orange Beach, AL,
September 1997 - April 1999
Responsible for the direct supervision of 5 full time academic department heads
of the school and worked extensively with 35 adjunct faculty. Designed and
implemented a faculty development program. Supervised the revision of all 215
courses offered by the school. Additionally, served as Department Head for
Human Resource Management. As department head developed curriculum,
reviewed and selected textbooks, as well as wrote and prepared study guides and
syllabi for both graduate and undergraduate Human Resource Management
courses.
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Director of Mission Support – Officer Training School, Maxwell AFB, AL, May
1992 - March 1995
Developed and implemented personnel policies and programs; training,
motivating, and evaluating executive and middle management and staff level
personnel; determination of personnel eligibility for promotion; familiarity and
fair application of military and other regulatory mandates including Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission regulations, labor grievances, OSHA,
among others; labor/workforce analysis; ensuring utilization of personnel and
other resources wisely and responsibly. Responsible for budget administration,
financial management, and fiscal accountability including variance monitoring
and implementation of cost controls and preparation of documentation necessary
for large budget/funding acquisition ($1.5 million annually).
MILITARY EXPERIENCE
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Personnel & Training - U.S. Air Force (Active duty) 1980 - 1995
Commander - Training Support Flight / Officer Training School –Maxwell AFB,
AL
Chief, Personnel Programs - Headquarters Air University, Maxwell AFB, AL
Chief, Military Personnel - 3800 Air Base Wing, Maxwell AFB, AL
Senior Officer Personnel Manager - Headquarters Air University, Maxwell AFB,
AL
School Section Commander & Instructor – Squadron Officer School, Maxwell
AFB, AL
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KEY MILITARY ACHIEVEMENTS
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Directed/administered a staff of 35, an instructional cadre of 75, 45 enlisted
personnel, and a budget of $120,000 providing personnel administration, logistics,
computer, and instructional support for 2500 Officer Trainees annually.
Coordinated operations of five branches charged with policy development,
program review/evaluation, quality force, personal affairs, and
classification/training functions for 15,000+ staff, faculty, and students of Air
University.
Supervised a staff of 80+ providing military personnel support and management
to 60,000+ area active duty and retired personnel.
Personally selected personnel for key staff and management positions.
Established and vigorously pursued policies, which ensured equal employment
opportunity.