m6f
THE
TX 769
^"^^
^
THEOPtY AND ART
BREAD-MAKING
A NEW PROCESS
WITHOUT THE USE OF FERMENT.
E.
N.HORSPORD,
RUMFORD PROFESSOR
IX
HARVARD UNIVERSITT, CAMBRIDGE.
CAMBRIDG E:
WELCH, BIGELOW, AND COMPANY,
PKIXTKKS TO THE UNIVERSITY.
18
6 1.
fe^
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1861, by
E
.
N
.
H O R S F O 11 D
in the Clerk's OfiSce of the District
,
Court of the District of Massachusetts.
^
THE
THEORY AND ART OF BREAD-MAKING.
Bread-making,
in
widest sense, consists in giving to the
its
flour of certain grains convenient
What
the form shall be
is
form
for the purposes of food.
determined by several considerations,
the most important of which
is
the adaptation of the food to the
In order
requirements of digestion.
most
to this adaptation, the
essential quality of the bread is surface for the action of the digest-
ing fluids.
Bread presenting great
surface, so as to yield
to the agents of digestion, is healthy, while that
surface, so as to overtask the
little
case of heavy bread,
is
promptly
which presents
powers of digestion, as in the
not healthy.
Surface
is
gained most con-
veniently by giving to the mass of flour the cellular structure of
raised or light bread.
of the
This cellular structure permits the
mouth and stomach
to pass in
by
capillary action,
fluids
and by
endosmosis and exosmosis to penetrate every part of the mass and
accomplish the office of digestion.
As
experience has shown wheat to contain the elements of nutri-
tious food in the best proportions for the
wants of the human
or-
ganism, the discussion which follows will be devoted to the art of
making bread from wheaten flour. In the broadest acceptation,
bread-making might include the preparation of crackers, cake, and
all the forms of light and heavy pastry in use
but it is proposed
;
to
omit
all these,
and
limit the application of the
word bread
to
the plain, light, or raised wheaten fiour loaf, into which, beside the
principle of leaven, only salt
The
from
and water enter
as
great essential process of such bread-making
flour of a
permanent
component
is
parts.
the production
cellular structure of convenient size
and
THE THEORY AND ART
form,
—
to wit, tlie raised loaf,
If the loaf
the original flour.
or aromatic
hy
with but inconsiderable changes of
is
made sweet by
addition of sugar,
addition of flavoring extracts, Or rich
of eggs or butter or
by addition
cake or pudding or pastry, but not
fruit, it is
bread.
Let us consider the material out of which
this
loaf
is
to
be
produced.
Composition of the Wheat- Grain.
Fig. 1.
d
^
CD
The crushed
grain of wheat
By
white iwrtions.
is
removed.
Of
is
a mixture of reddish-brown and
bolting or sifting, most of the
this the
commonly though not
coarser part
much
little
of
Careful examination shows
it
of the interior portion of the berry.
true bran, or bark,
grains and rubbing
towel.
brown portion
Bran is
called bran.
universally supposed to contain but
the nutritious part of the wheat.
to contain
is
may
The
outer
be partially removed by moistening the
them
lightly
between the
This hull or bark so separated
is
folds of a coarse
chiefly
composed of
woody fibre, and contains little nutritious matter. Investigations
made elsewhere, and confirmed in my laboratory, have shown
the amount of the outer bran that may be so detached to be
less
than three and a half per cent of the weight of the un-
Fig. 1 exhibits the wheat-grain or kernel of the natural size, presenting the
grooved side and reverse, and cross section also a cross section magnified to
;
18 diameters, and displaying
tlie
bran-coats, gluten-coat, and starch-cells.
OF BREAD-MAKING.
Within
branned berrj.
as
and constituting a continu-
this bark,
most important constituent of the
contains the phosphates and nitrogenous ingre-
ous inner wrapper,
wheat,
5
it
is
the
which the digesting and assimilating apparatus
dients out of
elaborate all the important tissues and organs of the bodj.
is
Within
the gluten.
to the centre of the berry,
three portions,
—
It
envelope of gluten, and extending
this
a mass of starch.
is
There are then
the bran proper or outer envelope, the gluten
or inner envelope, and the starch.
They
are exhibited in Fig.
The bark
1.
envelope, including
also the portion next the gluten, consists of several layers, the
of which
outermost
gluten
and
resembles very thin
The
cuts like the rind of cheese.
loosely held together
The
starch
by a coarse network of
oil also
is
in cells,
granular and
is
cellular tissue.
its
Gluten
Its
consumption, and that of the gum, sugar,
present in small quantities in wheat-meal, contribute
to maintain the
ment of
temperature of the body necessary to the
is
the
name under which
In
an insoluble
;
albumen
;
fulfil-
various functions.
uents of the flour are grouped.
portion, the fibrine
the chief nitrogenous constitit
there have been recognized
a smaller, soluble portion, the
and a portion not so well known, wdiich
and is called
is
dite certain kinds of fermentation,
these bodies have substantially the
is
The
straw.
starch belongs to a class of bodies specially related to the
respiratory organs.
and
much
not fibrous, like the hull or bran proper, but
is
said to expe-
cerealine.
same chemical
As
constitution,
it
conceivable that they differ from each other chiefly in the de-
gree of degradation which the latter two have experienced, or in
the degree in which they are susceptible of decomposition
action of ferment, the fibrine being the most stable,
aline the least stable of the group.
envelope, there
ble nitrogenous
The
is,
Besides the gluten in the
according to Mayer,^ a small amount of a soludistributed throughout the starch.
compound
gluten and starch
may
be separated from each other by
kneading in a current of water.
slightly elastic substance.
The
The former
latter is
is
Aim.
d. Chei-n. u.
a tenacious,
granular and loosely co-
herent.
1
by the
and the cere-
Pharm., CI. Bd.
2, p. 163.
THE THEORY AND ART
Fig. 2.
If a cross section of wheat be exposed for a short time to the
action of a solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper, the gluten
will
be impregnated with a green compound.
green compound, which
is
The
extent of the
coincident with that of the gluten, will
be found to be limited to a thin envelope immediately within the
bran proper.
If another cross section be exposed for an instant
which a few
become deep violet
to the action of a solution of iodide of potassium to
drops of nitric acid have been added,
it
will
wherever the starch granules occur, and the extent of the starch
will be found to include the entire space within the thin envelope
of gluten.
Microscopic examination shows the gluten to be
posed in one continuous layer of
granules, and the chemical tests
with no intervening starch
show
that the gluten cells pene-
trate the starch but slightly, if at
Fig. 3.
dis-
cells
all.
Miller^s
Bran.
Fig. 2 presents a portion of a transverse section of white
wheat, magnified to
1, 1 are the coats of outer true bran
2 is the inner coat of true
150 diameters.
;
bran; 3
gluten;
Fig. 3
last.
is
5,
is
a thin filmy coat covering the gluten cells;
sacks of gluten; 6, starch-cells.
cellulose containing
a transverse section of commercial bran, upon the same scale as the
of starch is sometimes twice or three times as thick as is here
The layer
exhibited.
4,
OF BREAD-MAKING.
Loss of Phosphates with
A glance at these
figures will explain
much
teen times as
the
Bran.
why Mayer
^
found four-
phosi^horic acid in commercial bran as he
found in commercial superfine flour. The bran carried with it
most of the layer of gluten in which the phosphates and the
companion nitrogenous compounds
sue
— are
starch, but little of the
.
gluten having been detached from the
Mege-Mouries^ found the
bran.
—
the sources of living tislodged; while the superfine flour consisted chiefly of
Fig. 4.
gluten coat to contain ten per cent
of nitrogen, while the average of
the whole
berry
from two
is
to
three per cent.
A
glance at these figures will
show why
also
from Graham
the bread
flour,
made
and the Pum-
pernickel of Westphalia, which
is
also
made from unbolted meal, and
the
black
bread
of
like
origin
found in the sacks of Russian
diers
in
the
sol-
Crimea, are so nu-
tritious, in spite
of their heaviness
and sourness.
They
contain all
the gluten as well as starch of the
grain.
All the phosphates and ni-
trogenous compounds of the grain
enter into the bread
when
the bran
not separated from the flour, in-
is
stead of a small fraction only, as in
bread made from superfine
flour.
Fig. 4 exhibits the
arrangement of the successive coats, inchuling the ghiten
or less of each coat being removed, so as to display the
order of succession. It is also on a scale of 150 diameters. The
coats 1, 1 are
readily separated with a moist cloth.3
and
ghiten-cells,
more
Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm., CI. Bd. 2, p. 146.
Compt. Rendus, XLVIIT. 4-31.
3 Mr. Thos. J. Hand, of New York, to whom I am
indebted for these most
detailed and elaborate original drawings, and who has
in numerous ways aided
1
2
THE THEORY AND ART
8
Difficulties
It is well
known
of Bread-making,
that the best bread-makers find great diiR-
of household cooks and of bakers
bread
This
the production of uniformly good bread.
cult}^ in
sometimes good, more
is
times positively bad.
employed
true
The
frequently indifferent, and often-
Sometimes the objectionable
the bread are apparent to the touch,
of smell and taste, and
is
in the shops.
qualities of
sometimes to the senses
more frequently
in their effects
upon
health through inferior assimilation.
The
may
The
flour
which
is
excellence as well as in composition.
in
employed
Some
from winter wheat, some from spring wheat
me
in
Some
sources of this difficulty are various.
be mentioned.
my researches
upou bread,
is
;
of
of them
is
variable
it
is
made
sometimes the
about to give to the public the results of his
fresh microscopic examination of the structure of the kernel of wheat.
which Mr. Hand has so successfully individualized under the mibe separated to some extent by chemical processes.
If the
berry, deprived of the two outer coats of true bran by friction with a moistened
cloth, be treated with alum solution, then opened along the side opposite the
groove, digested with warm water, and carefull}^ pressed, the starch may be quite
successfully separated.
The residue, consisting of gluten and the immediate investing coats, constitutes some twelve per cent of the Avhole berry. If the gluten
coat be treated with acetic acid, it may, with care, be separated from the layers
The
parts
croscope,
may
without.
The extreme outer
by friction with the moistened cloth, conand phosphate of, magnesia, besides silica and potassa.
The ash which has been analyzed by my assistant, Mr. Brooks, is 6.64 per cent,
of which 7.70 per cent is phosphoric acid.
The coats next to the gluten contain also phosphates and alkalies. But the
gi-eat magazine of phosphates, as well as of nitrogenous compounds, is in the
coats separated
tain phosphate of iron
gluten layer.
The ash
of Vv'heat as a whole contains,
—
Potassa
29.97
Soda
Magnesia
12.20
3.90
Lime
3.44
Phosphoric acid
Sulphui'ic acid
Silica
Oxide of
46.02
.33
3.35
ii'on
Chloride of sodium
.79
trace
100.00
OF BREAD-MAKING.
flour
made from "grown" wheat;
frequently it is damp and
is
grinding,
it
is
9
oftentimes
it
is
heated in
granular, and occasionallj
sour.
The
ingredients of the leaven or yeast with which the ferment-
ed "batch" bread
prepared are not only variable, but the
is
changes which take place in the yeast
are influenced by the
by the volume of water
employed, by the temperature to which the mixture is subjected from without, by the heat which is developed in the
process of fermentation within, by the species of ferment which
are added, by the degree of cleanliness maintained, and by the
itself
quality and condition of the ingredients,
time during which the various changes are protracted.
Effects of Fermentation.
Among
of which are beneficial,
hurtful,
—
the effects which ferment produces in flour,
— there
body nearly
some
and others of which are more or less
are the conversion of starch into dextrine (a
allied to
gum
arabic),
and
this dextrine into sugar,
and the changing of a portion of the sugar
bonic acid, the production of
and car-
into alcohol
lactic, acetic, butyric, succinic,
and
formic acids, the greater or less liquefaction of the gluten, the
formation of ammonia, the production of a dark coloring matter,
the development of microscopic vegetable organisms of various
kinds, and, through the breaking
or less deterioration of the
down of
nutritive
the gluten, the greater
properties
In the use of recently prepared leaven there
duced an ethereal
to
of the flour.
sometimes pro-
the pleasant taste of the
In the use of old leaven the production of offensive
bread.
ethereal oil
Of
which adds
oil
is
all
is
uniform.
these effects,
important,
if
of bread,
is
it is
now
generally conceded that the most
not the only essential
office
of ferment in the
making
make
give to
it
the requisite porosity, or to
''''lights
This porosity
is
necessary, as already intimated, that
tlie fluids
taking part in digestion
to
may have
it
surface to act upon.
accomplished by the evolution of carbonic acid from sugar,
the alcohol from which exhales with the surplus moisture in the
It is
process of baking.
The
production of
all
other acids than carbonic acid can scarcely
THE THEORY AND ART
10
The
be other than hurtful.
liquefoction of the gluten,
due
to
their presence in excess, tends to deprive the bread of porosity.
This extreme change causes the dough once distended
and
to collapse
leaving the bread heavy, or displaying here and there
fall,
great cavities.
Liebig proposed the use of lime-water in mixing the dough,
a suggestion that met with great acceptance.
vious.
Its office
was ob-
neutrahzed the acid which was liquefying the gluten.
lime also combined with the liquefied gluten (albumen) giv-
The
ing
It
—
it
The
firmness.
use of alum and sulphate of copper for the
districts, quite universal.
same end may
Dr. Hassall examined twenty-four samples of London bread, and
found alum in all. Dr. Muspratt remarks that what is true of
be said to be, in some
London may be
Dumas
land.
said of Liverpool
and
all
the larger towns of
found that sulphate of copper (blue
vitriol)
Enghad
been in use in Belgium from an indefinitely early period. The
Kuhlmann found
quantity employed, however, was very small.
that one baker
250
employed only a pipe-bowl full of the solution for
It was observed to have the effect to make
of bread.
lbs.
inferior flour
produce a bread that sold as well as bread from a
more water
better quality of flour, and, besides, the bread retained
Alum
and was whiter.
produced the same
of the alum, by virtue of
derstood.
It
its
qualities as
a mordant,
combines with albumen and renders
so far aiTCSting the action of the ferment,
way
is
much
the
combining with the albumen,
by the ferment,
is
same
to
The
it
less soluble,
in
a twofold
action of sul-
as that of alum, in so far as
form a compound
concerned, and
it
may have
less influenced
a separate specific
effect.
It is said to increase the activity of the ferment,
may be
apparent only, as the
gluten,
and thus increase
the ferment produces.
though
its
action
readily un-
is
and thus
lessening the liquefaction of the gluten.
phate of copper
The
results.
effect
may be
capacity to hold
simply to
all
It is conceivable that
but this
stiflTen
the
the bubbles which
it
acts
somewhat,
inferior in degree, as corrosive sublimate does to destroy
some of the species of the yeast-plants.
The
excessive production of dextrine, with extreme porosity,
makes the bread dry
too rapidly,
and gives
and hardness which characterize the
when
lefl
a short time exposed
slice
to the air.
rise to the brittleness
of most bakers' loaves
OF BREAD-MAKING.
Mould
11
poisonous.
The mould, or the organic germs from which it arises, can only
be hurtful. To this, it is well known, some of the most painful
forms of dyspepsia are ascribed. The significance of this statement may not at first glance be fully appreciated. The existence
of microscopic organisms in the various forms of yeast has been
Whether they be regarded
established.
office to fulfil in the
more
or whether the
as having an essential
process of fermentation, as
many
that they are the incidental concomitants of decay,
germs everywhere present
in the
decaying vegetable organisms,
other be adopted,
tion are
—
atmosphere finding a
— whether
the yeast
fit
soil in
the one view or the
admitted that the phenomena of fermenta-
it is
accompanied by the growth of microscopic vegetable
It is well
organisms.^
ble of reproducing
those into which
known
it
that each kind of ferment
and communicates
itself,
the" tendency to break
acetic,
maintain,
philosophical view of Liebig be accepted,
up
into bodies of the
itself resolved.
is
to the
This
new
is
capa-
substance
same character
is
as
true of lactic,
and putrefactive fermentation, as well as of those attend-
ing the successive changes of starch into dextrine, sugar, and
When now we
alcohol and carbonic acid.
these doctrines,
it
is
take into account
not difficult to conceive that the ferments
and their yeast-plants, having escaped destruction by the heat
of baking,
may
produce
ill
effects
when they reach
the general
circulation.
As a class, microscopic fungi are poisonous. Some of the
forms of mould in carelessly dried chestnuts are well known to
be poisonous.
The form
of mould that appears on cheese has
long been recognized as a malignant poison.
appears on rye, and
its
ill
effects,
The fungus^ that
The wheat-
are well known.
bread distributed among the troops in Paris in 1841 was found
The rust of
to contain in all its crevices a minute red hchen.
wheat and smut of corn are
1
Blondeaii has indicated the particular fun^i that attend the different kinds
of fermentation.
With the
acid, the Penicillium
2
varieties of these poisonous fungi.
Ergot.
alcoholic
glaucum
;
is
the Torvula cererisice
and with the
;
with the lactic
acetic, Torvula aceii.
THE THEORY AND ART
12
Dr. Mitchel of Philadelphia long since called attention
to
the influence of these microscopic organisms on health, and the
subject in this immediate connection has been discussed at considerable length
;
among
others,
by an English author on hygiene,
Dr. Lobb, in a series of articles in the Medical Circular of London, in which he advocates the aerated bread of Dr. Dauglish,
made without
bread
and
;
ferment, to the exclusion of
by Dr. Hunt
in an able paper
fermented batch-
all
North Ameri-
in the
can Journal of Homoeopathy.
These
effects
of ferment and the incidental deterioration of
the flour by the incipient disintegration of
the gluten are un-
desired concomitants, which,
or less extent,
must accept
we produce
if
to
the
a
greater
cellular structure
we
by means of
ferment.
Wliy Flour is
mixed with Water and
baked,
The
is
great
fact, as
Yeast,
and
Tcneaded
and
Sfc.
already remarked, in the art of bread-making,
the jjroduction of surface for the action of the digesting fluids.
It is the
accomplishment of a permanent cellular structure.
Let
us trace the series of processes.
The jlour
is
thoroughly
the gluten, which,
ticity
that
and
tenacity,
when bubbles
may
when
dry,
to
That
be intimately mixed with the starch, so
an
elastic
and tenacious
kneaded thoroughly with
gas-bubbles
the
enough
is
?
water, possesses elas-
of gas appear in the midst of the loaf they
may everywhere have
The yeast
mixed with water for what
when moistened with
are
coat.
the Jiour for what'^
produced, their walls
by exhalation of the water,
may
to the
That,
be thin
consistency
required for self-support before the outside burns in the process
of baking.
The dough
is placed in the oven to he baked for what ?
That
by extreme drying, may become hard at the moment
dough has attained its greatest porosity, and hold 02?
the surface,
when
the
the spongy interior while the surplus water
is
exhaled.
The
browning of the crust gives rise, by destructive distillation, to
some essential oils, kindred with those produced in the roasting
of corn or coffee, and agreeable to the senses of smell and taste.
OF BREAD-MAKING.
The
coagulation of the albumen, and
some of the starch produced by
tiie
13
increased solubility of
may
bailing,
be considered steps
in the du'ection of disintegration.
Are
there other effects accomplished in ordinary bread-making
Knapp
Any
remarks, that the starch
may
one
on
satisfy himself
for the
is
?
most part unchanged.
point by adding a drop of
this
will become blue.
The
by kneading Avith cold
water.
They have been simply mixed together, and the change
produced in them has been inconsiderable.
But is there not something mysterious in the action of ferment
iodine water to a
crumb of bread, which
starch and gluten
may
be
separated
which gives the fermented bread decided superiority
?
Let us
consider this inquiry.
Tlw Ideal Loaf.
Every baker has
in his
mind an
ideal loaf,
—a
loaf the ferment
of which was quite fresh, and almost neutral or but slightly acid,
and that with
volatile acid
;
the flour of which
was not heated
grinding, nor moistened just before nor after grinding, and
in
made
from choice winter wheat containing a large proportion of gluten,
which gluten was not
removed with the bran, the mixing of
rising of which
all
was with rich milk instead of water, the
wliich
was carefully watched so that the
oven when the temperature of the
might be placed in the
loaf
and the distension of
what they should be,
and now and
then some of the numerous staff have had a loaf approaching
latter
—
the former were precisely
But
that ideal.
it
the testimony of all
one beset with innumerable
is
would be
result
;
so that
whatever the careful baker
other reasons, there
difficulties
difficulties
the yeast,
is
and
flour,
have
and that no one
a given
may
this ideal loaf.
trial as to its
occasionally re-
If there were no
it.
The intrinsic
number of unknown quantities
not good flour enough for
of the problem
in the yeast
is
that the task of attaining
safe in prophesying with regard to
joice in, the world cannot
as if
is
difficulties,
lie
in the
and the varying
skill
of the cook.
These
are so great that the baker speaks of the -vagaries of
—
its
fitfulness, inconsistency,
and untrustworthiness,
they were almost entitled to the rank of moral qualities.
known,
for example, that a
It
sample of yeast that sometimes
THE THEORY AND ART
14
work well on a lower
refuses to
floor will
work admirably
in the
fourth story, and that a yeast working well at one bakery,
carried with
its
fuses to fulfil
its office.
when
it is
when
containing vessels to a neighboring bakery, re-
These phenomena
find
some explanation
considered that the germs of the yeast-plants are carried
readily in the
air.
All attempts at establishing a method of making fermented
batch-bread that shall be invariably good, from the days
when
unleavened bread was prescribed for use at sacred ceremonials,
have resulted in but inconsiderable advancement. The process
of Rollan, which attracted considerable attention in France, and
the ingenious processes of Berdan, apply only to the mechanical
arrangements connected with kneading and baking.
made
cess,
Neither
the slightest advance in the most essential part of the pro-
—
to wit, the production of the cellular structure.
Mege-Mouries's Process.
The most
scientific
Mouries.
portions,
considerable contribution
knowledge on
—
in
recent times
subject has been
this
to
our
made by Mege-
This experimenter divides wheaten meal into three
jiour, groats,
He
and hran.
steeps the groats with
water, in the proportion of one of groats to four of water acidulated
with tartaric acid, and
It
tation.
is
mixed with the
lets it
run through the alcoholic fermen-
then strained, to separate any bran-flakes, and
flour
which
is
to
be made into dough.
The
al-
become dark-colored, as
wheaten meal more frequently does, and as other bread occasionally does when made in the ordinary way, and that all the
leged gain
is
the
that
loaf does not
nitrogenous constituents of the flour are saved.
is,
that there
which
is
to
integration.
fulfilled
is
by
is
Mouries's theory
a nitrogenous body in the groats, the
first
action of
produce a dark-colored compound as a result of
dis-
This function of the nitrogenous body having been
letting
it
run through the alcoholic fermentation, it
the ofl&ce of leaven upon the flour.
in condition to perform
Mouries's process
is
doubtless good
;
though, in careful hands,
has not invariably succeeded, and his reading of the results
perfect.
Bakers are familiar with the
made with
fact that
is
it
im-
dough which
is
brewers' yeast, set aside to rise one hour, for example,
OF BREAD-MAKIXG.
15
•
yields a dark -colored loaf, while, if permitted to
and then baked,
remain two hours before baking, it yields a white loaf. The coloring matter is, then, obviously a passing phase accompanying cer-
The bread
tain changes.
than that of the whiter
In the
in the dough.
and sugar stage
;
of the darker loaf
uniformly sweeter
is
The baking
loaf.
arrests the changes
case the changes stop in the dextrine
first
in the second, they stop in the alcoholic stage.
To comprehend this fully, let it be remembered that the best
made in this direction, from Schwann and Liebig to
researches
Pasteur, go to prove that each change in the fermenting mass
has
its
own
special attendant ferment, that each ferment
pable of reproducing
each ferment
Mouries
itself,
proportioned to the quantity present.
is
sets the groats aside to steep in water,
great excess of gluten and a moderate
he adds
is
ca-
and that the transforming power of
he
amount of
When
•
sets aside
starch
;
a
when
starch sugar already in ferment, he
tartaric acid, or
Exposure to the
oxygen and the breaking
introduces an agent which liquefies the gluten.
by
air is followed
down
the absorption of
of the gluten compound.
of the ferment that
With
comes the formation
this
change the starch
is to
to dextrine
disintegration of the gluten gives the body that
dextrine into sugar, and
oxidation, the
and carbonic
still
body that
is
further
;
to convert the
further disintegration, and perhaps
to transform the
Each of
acid.
is
sugar into alcohol
these transforming agents not only
produces- the change in starch or dextrine or sugar which
immediate
office,
but
it
reproduces
itself,
is
its
as already remarked,
from the stock of nitrogenous matters at hand. Thus, when the
decoction of the groats has run its course through the alcoholic
fermentation,
sugar,
— but
it
it
has
has
left
left
behind
— no
to the production of the dextrine, sugar,
this
starch,
no dextrine, no
the particular ferments that are essential
magazine of ferments
is
mixed with
bread, and a portion of the starch
is
and
be wrought into
transformed into dextrine by
the aid of the appropriate ferment, another ferment
convert the dextrine into sugar, and
convert the sugar into alcohol.
And when
alcohol.
flour to
still
is
at
hand
to
another ferment to
These several ferments were
produced from the groats by the preliminary process.
Conceive now the supply of ferment required
to
effect
any of
THE THEORY AND ART
16
the changes in the series to be inadequate,
—
for example, the
ferment necessary to produce the change from dextrine to sugar.
Suppose the baking
The bread
reached.
dextrine and
sugar.
and the change
stage has
this
been
by the presence of
be dark-colored, and sweet and
will be characterized
It
will
new ferment to be produced and to act,
be complete. The ferment that converts the
But give time
heavy.
when
take place
to
will
for
sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid being present in adequate
quantity, the dark color
and extreme sweetness and heaviness
will disappear.
of the gluten of commercial bran or groats, or " fine
The saving
feed," if only
a ferment
as
gluten of the flour,
to
spare the disintegration of the
desirable, but the certainty of obtaining
is
good fermented batch-bread by the process of Mouries, beside
consuming much time, requires the same close attention that the
Moreover, the
ordinary process with brewers' yeast requires.
usage of
country does not contemplate the joint purchase
this
of flour and bran for
home
supplies.
Can Fermentation
he avoided'^
Since then fermented batch-bread
and since the
ties,
sult attained
cellular structure
is
is
liable to these uncertain-
the only important good re-
by fermentation, the inquiry suggests
ferment
this desirable effect of
may
hazard of making the bread hurtful,
itself
whether
not be attained without the
— without
the sustained care
and watchfulness, and without the consumption of so much time.
May
it
starch,
not
be attained without the use of decaying gluten,
and sugar
?
household supplies.
This
It
was made by Henry ^
is
manifestly the great problem of
has been so recognized.
This inquiry
at the close of the last century,
proposed the use of a carbonated alkali and muriatic
when mixed with
the flour and moistened, gives,
by the evolution
of carbonic acid, the requisite porosity, and produces
common
throughout the loaf at the same time.
salt
The mixture
1
when he
acid, that,
This plan
1837,
is
and Sewall,
process.
of saleratus (carbonate of potassa) and sour milk
ordinarily ascribed to
Dr. R,
Thompson.
Dr. Whiting, in
in 1848, took out English patents for modifications of the
;;
OF BREAD-MAKING.
method of
some extent
throughout, and
with flour was another answer, and
(lactic acid)
making
17
biscuit
and short-cake
this
practised to
is still
but the imperfect distribution of the saleratus
the imperfect neutralization of the potassa, because of the variable acidity of the sour milk employed,
alkali in the bread, both discoloring
brought
this
method
it
and the consequent
and making
into general disrepute.
with sour milk has found more
favor,
it
free
have
bitter,
Bicarbonate of soda
the
less
causticity of
any remains without being neutralized by the lactic
being less objectionable to the palate and less marked in
this alkali, if
acid,
on the bread.
its effects
The mixture of dry tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda with
flour is well known to produce a light and palatable bread.
Substituting
cream of
tartar
— an
acid tartrate of potassa
—
in place
of pure tartaric acid, to be mixed with the bicarbonate of soda,
is
another and popular expedient for escaping the prolonged and
m
variously objectionable process of bread-making
the use of
yeast or sour dough.
Dr.
Dauglish has devised a method, recognizing
based upon
ments
— the
bread-making
in
He
structure.
—
idea that the only desirable oflice of
works
indeed,
all
fer-
to give to the loaf a certain cellular
is
into the flour a solution of carbonic acid in
water, employing a closed kneading apparatus, so as to conduct
To
the process under pressure.
this plan,
which
results in
most
excellent and acceptable bread, there can be no objection except
that,
although suited
to
the wants of extensive public bakeries,
does not meet the wants of private families.
it
The
use of bicarbonate of soda and sour milk has this objec-
tion, that
the proper adjustment of acid and soda
attained,
and the bread
brown, from the excess of
The
lent
is
it
alkali.
resulting in
tartrate
of soda and tartrate of
generally regarded as harmless, because these sub-
stances are present in
much
of the most healthful fruit
but there are eminent physicians
by
rarely if ever
use of cream of tartar and bicarbonate of soda in equiva-
proportions,
potassa,
is
frequently bitter and portions of
is
who regard
the use of these ingredients as injurious to
organs.
2
we
the bread
eat
made
the alimentary
THE THEORY AND ART
18
In
these processes nothing useful
all
except the cellular texture.
However
mal constituents of the flour may
supplied by any of these methods.
is
added
deficient
none of
be,
dough,
to the
any of the norwants are
its
THE NEW METHOD.
In view of the foregoing, the question naturally suggests
May
it
not be possible to return a wanting ingredient, or
constituent to the bread, at the
nutritive
raising of the loaf
is
to
experimental solution.
to
of the two ingredients, the acid and the base of a
itself,
present in the cereals and
salt,
essential
the
which directed the research was the production,
idea
each by
normal
that
accomplished as an incidental effect?
This problem has been subjected
The
same time
itself.
add a
all
healthful food, and
the production of all the important organs of the
body, in such form that the two mixed with flour would remain
inert
till
the addition of water or the application of heat, and
then unite to establish the normal
salt,
evolving incidentally car-
bonic acid from the midst of the dough, to
Of
all
make
the bread porous.
the salts taking part in vital processes, the most impor-
They
tant are the phosphates.
enter into the composition of the
boiles, the muscles, the nerves, the brain,
higher tissue
;
formed there nature has supplied a
are present in
and indeed of every
and wherever an important function
all
to
be per-
store of phosphates.
They
the forms of substantial food.
the great prominence
now
is
Aside from
given by the medical world to the
use of the various forms of soluble hypoj^hosphites,
known
it
that finely prepared phosphate of lime, eaten
is
greatly aids the growth and firmness of bones and teeth.
tured bones are reunited
much more promptly upon a
which pulverized bone enters as a prominent
well
as such,
Frac-
diet into
constituent.
The
excess of phosphates in the secretions of the kidneys consequent
upon extreme mental exhaustion has led to the use of some form
of phosphorus to renew the cerebral and nervous fibre.^
Food otherwise unobjectionable
ingredients,
and the
imperfect diet
is
effect of
is
frequently deficient in these
Hving too exclusively upon such
conceived to lower the tone and diminish the
1
Sir
Benjamin Brodie.
OF BREAD-MAKING.
vigor of the system as a whole.
On
19
the other hand,
suggested that pioneers and early settlers
owe
the osseous system, and the accompanying
has been
it
the prominence of
hardihood they so
uniformly display, in no small degree to the abundant phosphates
supplied by the virgin soil to the cereals and meats that constitute
their food.
This suggestion derives strength from the circum-
stance that the effeminacy of
comitant of a diet which
is
many
Oriental nations
This demand of the system for phosphates
well-known
many
relish of
is
the con-
relatively deficient in phosphates.
inferior animals
is
illustrated in the
for bones.
Cattle,
grazing in inferior pastures, eat ground bones with avidity.
Superfine Wheat Flour is deficient in Phosphates.
In the preparation of ordinary superfine wheaten flour we
by all that are contained
lessen the quantity of normal phosphates
Fig. 5.
Outline drawing of a portion of a longitudinal section of MiUer^s
Fig. 5.
Bran, upon a scale of 150 diameters. This is the companion drawing to Fig.
This is an accurate
3, which presents a transverse section of miller's bran.
drawing, under a camera lucida, and shows the great loss of nutritious mat-
Bran.
ters in ordinary Miller''s
1,
outer true bran;
2,
containing gluten cells;
inner true bran;
5,
3,
thin
gluten sacks, in outline;
membranous
6, 6,
coat;
4,
coat
starch cells^ in outline.
THE THEORY AND ART
20
in the gluten
made upon
which
this
is
Mayer, who has
sejDarated with the bran.
subject the most detailed
and comprehensive
research, finds the percentage of phosphoric acid in bran to be
2.82, while the percentage in superfine flour is only 0.20
that
;
the bran contains, weight for weight, as already remarked,
i\\im
fourteen times as
that
The
much phosphoric
separated from
is
acid as the superfine Jiour
it.
gluten which contains the phosphates
distributed, as already
coat of the berry.
It is
for the
easy to see, therefore,
why
— why
portionally of the nutritious portion of the grain
it is
is
most part
remarked, immediately within the bran
should be so largely removed with the bran,
a large part of
is,
more
is
the gluten
also
more pro-
withdrawn, when
separated as bran, in the effort to obtain a white
Mege-Mouries recovered in part the nutritious
matter when he employed the brari or groats extract as a ferment.
superfine flour.
He
at least spared the gluten present in the flour, that
would
the process of Mouries, for reasons already mentioned,
ticable,
even
if it
is
oth-
But
erwise have been sacrificed to the wants of fermentation.
as
imprac-
promised good bread with greater certainty of
fulfilment than the ordinary processes of fermented batch-bread,
there remains, as the next best thing, the restoration of the phos-
They
phates.
sometimes
are,
moreover, the
deficient.
It is
salts,
known
which, with the gluten, are
that the wheat-grain,
grown
under certain circumstances, has contained no gluten whatever.^
In many cases
when
it
is
imperfectly supplied with gluten, especially
has been grown upon impoverished
it
troducing phosphates into bread,
we
soil.
of restoring an ingredient sometimes deficient even
berry
employed, and always deficient in superfine
is
Thus, in
shall fulfil the double
if
alkaline earths, lime
To
the whole
flour.
deficient phosphates are the phosphates of the alkalies,
in-
oflfice
These
and of the
and magnesia.
secure the more important of these in the bread, with the
incidental evolution of carbonic acid,
it
is
only necessary to
mix
together with the flour a dry, highly acid phosphate of lime,
1 This was the case with a sample of Algerian wheat analyzed l)y Millon.
It
contained soluble nitrogenous compounds. Compt. Rend., XXXVIII. 12. Mayer
found
less
terior than
phosphoric acid with the sohible nitrogenous compounds of the
with the gluten of the envelope.
in-
OF BREAD-MAKING.
which
is
21
phosphoric acid and neutral phosphate of lime, and dry
bicarbonate of soda, in such proportions as shall leave a neutral
phosphate of lime and phosphate of soda after the dough has
been thoroughly kneaded and baked.
Preparation of
The phosphoric
source of
it,
acid
Acid.
prepared from the only practicable
is
the bones of beef and mutton.
then calcined, after which the lime
by
the
the action of a stronger acid,
is
in great
They
are boiled,
measure withdrawn
and the phosphoric
an
acid, as
exceedingly acid phosphate of lime, extracted by leaching.
The
extract is then concentrated by boiling, and in this condition
mixed with simple farinaceous matters, dried at a low heat to
render it brittle, and pulverized.
When now this pulverulent
acid
is
mixed with dry
flour,
and
to this
mixture bicarbonate of
soda added in such quantity as exactly to neutralize the free
phosphoric acid, and in such quantity of both acid and carbonate
that the carbonic acid evolved shall give to the loaf the requisite
porosity, then
it
remains only intimately to incorporate these in-
gredients with water and a
production of bread.
The
of flour, acid phosphate
little
salt,
and bake,
in order to the
addition of the water to the mixture
of lime, and
carbonate
of soda, and
especially the application of heat, causes the phosphoric acid to
decompose the carbonate of soda, with the evolution of carbonic
forming cavities throughout the dough, and producing at the
same time phosphate of lime and phosphate of soda.
Instead of mixing the acid separately with the flour and then
acid,
this
mixture with the bicarbonate of soda, the acid phosphate and
may
the bicarbonate, thoroughly dried,
this
condition preserved
dougii arises.
flour,
until
be mixed together, and
the occasion for preparing
The mixture may
in
the
then be incorporated with the
and thoroughly kneaded with an adequate quantity of cold
water.
Scientijic Precision in
By
this process,
preparation
Bread-making.
bread-making and most of the forms of pastry-
may be reduced
to scientific precision.
tion of cellular structure will be
a thing by
itself.
The producOther quali-
THE THEORY AND ART
22
may be added
ties
aromatic fluids or
Sugar or
as taste or fancy suggests.
fruits,
any or
butter or eggs,
all,
may
acids,
be incor-
porated in specified quantities, without interfering with the agent
which
is
None
produce cellular structure.
to
of the flour, derived from
its
starch or
its
of the constituents
gluten, are to be sacri-
ficed in order to gain porosity, as in the ordinary process of fer-
mentation.
This method has enabled the writer to insulate, and impart at
fermented
will to the loaf, the peculiar properties of the baker's
By
batch-bread.
adding a
little
wine
the flour containing the cell-producing
water with which
to the
powder
(the
mixed pulver-
ulent phosphoric acid and bicarbonate of soda, or yeast-powder)
is
mixed, the baked loaf acquired some of the peculiar aroma of
the wine, and a certain peculiar feel of the pile (cellular structure)
recognized in good fermented bread, and due to to the presence
By
of alcohol.
trine),
the
adding British
gum
(roasted
recalling this
common
its
By
property of fermented bread.
sugar, the peculiar sweetness of a loaf
of
fermentation was recognized.
baked
By
adding
in the sugar stage
adding weak vinegar,
the peculiar objectionable acidity of bread
made from ferment
passed into the acetic fermentation was imparted to the
By
or dex-
starch
baked loaf acquired a certain leathery toughness,
adding to the mixture of yeast-powder,
flour,
loaf.
and
salt,
before kneading, instead of water or milk wholly, a part of good
ale,
there were imparted all the desired qualities of the choicest
loaf of fermented bread
made from
This pro-
brewers' yeast.
—
aroma and faint, agreeable bitter of the hop,
in addition to
the dextrine, alcohol, and sugar of the beer,
and to those who relish these qualities,
the cellular structure
due to beer, the method leaves nothing to desire. A few experiments will satisfy any baker or cook that the qualities he covets
in bread or pastry may be imparted to it with certainty upon the
cess insured the
—
;
principle here laid down.
Is
Bread made
hy the
Let us consider whether any
New Method
ill
Healthy
?
can result to health from the
use of bread containing phosphates of lime and soda.
tically this question
has been settled in two ways.
Prac-
Bread has
OF BREAD-MAKING.
23
always contained phosphate of lime and phosphate of potassa
(nearly allied to phosphate of soda), and the article of phosphatic bread has been in extensive use for a series of years, to
the great satisfaction of those who have employed it.
But
it
may
doubt
be asked,
— Does
the
question
admit of a theoretical
?
Both the
articles are essential constituents of healthful food.
The phosphate
of soda
the phosphate
of lime
combination,
present as an indispensable ingredient of every
is
is
a normal constituent of the blood, and
phosphoric acid, in some form of
or
important tissue of the organism.
wheaten
fine
fulfils
The bread made from
flour is deficient in the phosphates,
a legitimate want.^
But
it
may
al
this inquiry, the fact that
this
super-
supply
be asked, Is there provis-
ion for the healthful removal of phosphates,
To
and
if
there be a surplus
?
nature has provided for the remov-
of portions of the osseous system, especially in cases of frac-
ture,
is
perhaps a
emphatic.
sufficient
answer
The French army was
;
but there
at
is
another,
soup-cakes prepared from bones with the aid of Papin's
The cakes prepared from bones
ture
dio-ester.
liquefied at an elevated tempersL-
and under pressure, supplied phosphates
beyond the normal wants of the
more
one time supplied with
soldiers' diet;
in quantity greatly
but nature appropri-
ated such portion of the nutriment offered as she required, and the
remainder was rejected.
If the digestive system can thus easily
dispose of this great surplus, the task which the phosphatic bread
may
impose
is
a light one.
The
supei-fine wheat-flour,
constitutes generally less than three quarters,
ces less than one half, of the
and
in
some
wheat from which
it
is
has according to Mayer, already
cited,
phosphoric acid of the original wheat.
bread made from flour of the
which
instan-
prepared,
only one fifteenth of the
One hundred ounces
latter quality contain
of
about three
ounces of phosphates less than the whole wheat contained.
This
quantity greatly exceeds the amount restored in the use of phosphatic yeast-powder.
1 See the statement of Mayer, already quoted.
Mouri6s's analysis of the
gluten coat, taken in connection with the correlation of the nitrogenous ingi-edients and phosphates, amply confirms the tmth of this remark.
THE THEORY AND ART
24
SUMMARY.
The
wlieat-grain consists of an outside coat,
composed of sev-
eral layers, and constituting the pericarp or bran proper, which
contains but httle nutritious matter; an inner envelope, the gluten,
which contains most of the nitrogenous constituents and phos-
and an interior mass of starch.
In the ordinary method of bolting to produce superfine white
phates,
most of the
flour,
called, or
first
In Graham
two are separated.
flour, so
wheaten meal, the constituents are not separated from
The Pumpernickel, or sour black bread of Westmade from flour of the latter kind. It contains, as does
bread made from ordinary unbolted wheat-meal, all the nutritious
each other.
phalia, is
ingredients of the wheat.
Fermented or leavened bread
differs
from unleavened bread
former has derived a porous structure from the gases
in that the
evolved in the greater or less decay of some of
The
its
constituents.
by leavened or porous bread is
that it permits the ready admission of the juices of the mouth and
stomach employed in digestion. Without this the bread would be
chief advantage possessed
The
unhealthfuh
the starch
that,
object in kneading
and gluten of the
when bubbles appear
by an
elastic
The
thoroughly to incorporate
in the dough, they
and tenacious
to large cavities
is
flour with the leaven
coat,
and water, so
may be
surrounded
and not run together, giving
rise
and making the bread heavy.
object in baking
is
arch over the risen dough by sudden
to
drying or conversion of the starch into dextrine, so as to hold up
the porous interior while the surplus water exhales, without which
the digesting fluids could enter but slowly
starch
more
soluble, while the
;
and
also to render the
albuminous portion of the gluten
is
coagulated.
To make
uniformly good fermented bread
a task beset with numerous
The
difficulties arise partly
yeast employed, and more
is
well
known
to be
difficulties.
from the variable
still
qualities of the
from the influence of time and
temperature upon the action of the yeast on
itself
and on the
flour.
The
yeast, beside conferring the cellular structure
upon dough.
OF BREAD-MAKING.
deteriorates the flour
It frequently
gluten.
The
smell.
are not
all
by the greater or
makes the bread
25
less disintegration of the
offensive to the taste
and
microscopic plants which attend on fermentation
Each change
destroyed by baking.
whether yielding dextrine, sugar,
acid, or acetic acid,
has
its
of the starch,
lactic acid, alcohol
and carbonic
own accompanying ferment and
fungus
or plant.
These microscopic plants or
To most
persons
warm
fungi, as a class, are poisonous.
fermented bread
is
injurious, possibly,
it
has been suggested, because the vitality of some of the yeastplants has escaped the destructive action of the oven.
surviving plants, whose office
compounds,
their
In
ill
upon the
stale bread, the
These
the disintegration of albuminous
after imperfect digestion,
effects
it
is
maintained, produce
blood.
prolonged drying has perhaps deprived the
larger portion of the plants,
ity,
is
and corresponding ferments, of
vital-
or has permitted them to exhaust their action in converting
starch into dextrine and sugar, and the latter into lactic acid, so
that fermented bread
when
cold
is
less injurious.
If the fungi
and ferment which accompany the changes from starch
trine, sugar, alcohol,
injurious to
and carbonic
dex-
to
acid, are relatively but slightly
most healthy organisms,
it
cannot be doubted that
the fungi and accompanying ferment that attend upon putrefactive
fermentation, which are liable to be present in fermented bread,
are objectionable in the last degree.^
to
Numerous attempts have been made to give cellular structure
dough without the aid of ferment. The method of carbonate
of soda and hydrochloric acid,
—
— and
sour milk (lactic acid),
acid or
cream of
tartar,
—
that of carbonate of potassa
that of carbonate of soda
that of kneading
and
and
tartaric
dough under pres-
sure with water chai'ged Avith carbonic acid, have all had their
1
Dr.
Lobb (London Medical
Cirmilar, Vol.
XVI. No.
397, p. 90) remarks, that
the vitality of the yeast in the centre of a loaf of fermented batch-bread
wholly destroyed.
is
never
have found that freshly-baked fermented bread, crumbled
up and mixed with flour, mashed potatoes, and water, passes into putreAxctive
fermentation. The reason why warm fermented bread is not healthful to persons whose digestive powers are not in full vigor, while stale bread is less so,
invites further observation and experiment.
I
THE THEORY AND ART
26
Although objections have arisen
advocates.
to all these
methods,
But not one of
the last two have met with great acceptance.
them adds a nutritive ingredient to the bread.
The method of Mege-Mouries, employing the extract of bran
or groats as a source of ferment,
commendable, as
is
save the nutritious constituents of the flour
;
but
it
it is
tends to
time-con-
suming, and, as experiment has shown, does not seem any more
certain, without equivalent care
and
w^atchfulness, to produce
good
method of brewers' yeast or sour dough.
new method of raising bread, which, at
proposes
a
The writer
bread, than the ordinary
the
same time
that
it
adds a nutritious ingredient, or restores a
wanting constituent of nutrition
confer cellular structure
the bread
is
made
light,
produced in the bread,
to the flour, shall incidentally
on the dough
;
a method by which, while
phosphates of
hme and
to take the place in
soda shall be
some degree of the
phosphates withdrawn from the flour with the bran, or deficient
in the original wheat.
This method gives to the baker the
successful bread-making requires.
be produced by
itself,
scientific precision
The
cellular
and any other desired
which
may
may be
structure
qualities
by employing the necessary agent for the
For example, alcohol, dextrine, sugar, and flavoring
purpose.
extracts may be made to produce their specific effects upon the
imparted, each by
itself,
itself.
Or they may be employed, several of
Or they may be all united, and the most prized
qualities of home-made bread conferred on the loaf, by replacing
a part of the water required for kneading with ale. Thus the
dough, each by
them
together.
qualities
imparted by dextrine, sugar, alcohol, aroma of the hop,
the faint trace of pleasant acidity, and slight agreeable bitterness,
which are generally so much esteemed
in bread,
may
be given
without the hazard of the offensive results that frequently attend
ordinary fermentation.
The
principle here laid
down
will
make
the preparation of
all
the forms of pastry a task of moderate skill and great certainty.
OF BREAD-MAKING.
27
ADVANTAGES OF THE NEW METHOD.
Among
new method
advantages which the
the
bread presents, are
:
—
of
making
from
Its saving of the nutritious constituents of the flour
1.
consumption in the process of raising the bread.
2. Its restoration of the phosphates, which are in larger or
measure removed with the bran
lesser
in the preparation of the
finer quahties of flour.
3.
Its
^Yhile ordinary fermented bread in-
saving of time.
volves as a general thing preparation over night, care for several
hours before baking, and dependence on a variable supply of
leaven or yeast, the phosphatic bread
for the
4. It
oven
in
secures a uniformly excellent
with the process of fermentation
household production
5.
is
prepared from the flour
a few minutes.
It furnishes
is
is
result,
more frequently
a bread that retains
while
the
result
of doubtful issue, and in
indifferent than good.
its
moisture
much
longer
than equally porous fermented bread, and does not mould as
readily as fermented bread does.
6.
It
provides a bread, from the use of which, even
of delicate digestive apparatus, none of the
mented bread
follow.
should lose
tion of
its
may
It
while with most persons
it
freshness, or
some objectionable
is
be eaten
by persons
ills
peculiar to fer-
warm
with impunity,
necessary that fermented bread
become
order to the destruc-
stale, in
qualities, before
it
may
be eaten with
safety.
7.
It is a
method which, by providing agents of known
and strength, reduces the measure of
minimum and secures, with a very small
ties
;
skill
quali-
required to a
dorrree of care
moderate expenditure of time, uniformly excellent bread.
and
APPENDIX
The
in
common method of making bread practised
method of Mege-Mouries, and the new method,
details of the
Paris, the
are subjoined, to enable the reader to judge of their comparative
simplicity.
Common Method
At
is
taken,
composed of eight kilogrammes of
This
kilogrammes of water.
main
Eight kilogrammes more
and
constitutes the
water are then added
At
flour
and four
until six o'clock in the
is left
morn-
leaven.
of flour and
four
kilogrammes of
forms the first quality of leaven.
two o'clock in the afternoon sixteen kilogrammes of flour
:
this
and eight of water are added
At
mass of paste (leaven or sour
eight o'clock in the evening a
dough)
ing,
practised in Paris.
five o'clock
hundred pounds of
this
:
is
the
the
complete leaven
flour
and
fifty-two
kilogrammes of water, mixed
with from two hundred to three hundred
At seven o'clock a hundred and
second quality of leaven.
prepared by adding a
is
grammes of yeast.
thirty-two kilogrammes of flour
and sixty-eight kilogrammes of water, holding
in solution
two
kilo-
grammes of salt, and mixed with from three hundred to six hundred grammes of yeast, are added to the leaven, and made into
well-kneaded dough.
With
made in
\st
this quantity of paste
Batch.
above, which
oven.
—
is
five or six batches of
—
manner
Tliis is composed of
moulded and left to
the following
:
half the
rise,
bread are
dough prepared as
and then
set into the
29
APPENDIX.
The bread
of this
baking
first
is
sour, rather brown,
and not
particularly light.
— The
2d Batch.
dough remaining of the
first
batch
is
mixed
with a hundred and thirty-two kilogrammes more of flour and
sixty-eight kilogrammes of water,
mixed with the same proportion
of salt and yeast as the preceding batch.
forms the second baking, the bread of which
than the
Half of
this
dough
whiter and better
is
first.
—
The same quantity of flour, water, and salt, with
3d Batch.
three hundred grammes of yeast, are again added to the dough,
of which half is baked as usual.
4:tk
— Same proceeding
— This prepared
Batch.
5th Batch.
what
is
is
as for the third.
and produces
like the foregoing,
called fancy bread, the finest quality of any.
3fethod of Mege-Mouries.
It
assumed
is
one hundred kilogrammes of
that
wheaten
meal have given,
1.
At
72
kil.
15
"
750 grammes finest white
"
750
dark groats.
11
"
500
o'clock
six
"
bran.
afternoon
the
in
flour.
take
40
litres^
(kilo-
grammes) of water at 18° R. (72J^° Fahr.), add 70 gram, of
pure yeast, or 700 gram, common grocer's yeast, and 100
gram, starch-sugar.
if
necessary, 26
the mixture
is
(Instead
gram,
of
of
the
tartaric
yeast and
acid.)
sugar,
The
must be maintained nearly
set aside
take,
place where
at the tem-
perature of 18° R.
2.
The next morning,
at six o'clock,
rated with carbonic acid.
groats.
3.
Stir
in
the
the fluid will be satu-
15
kil.
750 gram, of
Fermentation will commence immediately.
At two
o'clock in the afternoon add 30 litres of water,
and
pass the whole through a very fine silk or silver-wire sieve, to
separate the fine bran.
4.
The 70
litres Avith
which the groats have been
treated, after
passing through the sieve, will be reduced to about bb
1
A litre
of water weiglis 1,000
grammes
litres,
= 1 kilogramme = 2.2 lbs. avoirdupois.
30
APPENDIX.
with which the 72 kih 750 gram, of white flour and 700 gram,
of salt are to be kneaded into a dough.
(The bran is again extracted with 30 Htres of water and
extract employed in the next batch.)
tlie
5.
The dough
6.
When
I.
Self-raising flour
then placed in baking-pans to ferment.
is
raised,
placed in the oven.
it is
Tlie
is
bicarbonate of soda, and
With
proportions.
knead
in sufficient
New
common
this flour,
water
Method,
prepared, in which the phosphoric acid,
to
it
salt are
is
make a
present in the required
only necessary thoroughly to
slightly sticky dough,
The time required
in covered tins, in a quick oven.
and bake
for a single
person to prepare four loaves of a pound each, does not exceed
five minutes,
The
II.
flour
and the baking takes from
acid
is
prepared by
and bicarbonate of soda
been put up
quantities having
itself,
thirty to forty-five more.
and
at the
may
be mixed with the
same time
;
in separate parcels,
the equivalent
and with them
the measure for each.
III.
Lastly, the dry acid
in equivalent quantities,
is
and dry bicarbonate of
may be added
soda,
mixed
to the flour directly.
This
The method
the most convenient form for household use.
plied to
making a quart of flour
use, is as follows
:
—
Provide a quick oven.
from 350° to 450° Fahr.]
1.
2.
dry
Stir
[This requires a temperature of
a measure^ each of acid and soda into a quart of
flour, to wliich
a teaspoonful of
timately with the hands.
from a pint cup,
stirring
ap-
into one loaf of bread for family
salt
has been added.
Then add from time
to time cold
and kneading meanwhile,
sifted
Mix
until just
in-
water
a pint
of water has been most thoroughly incorporated with the flour.
3.
Shape the mass of dough
into a loaf, place
it
in a deep tin
bake-pan, with a cover so high as to be out of the reach of the
risen dough,
and
set
it
immediately in the oven.
1 The acid measure should contain 140 grains (9 grammes), and the soda
measure 62 grains (4 grammes), for one pound of flour.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
014 636 088 9
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
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014 636 088 9