Today’s Agenda
Role of Performance
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Definition of Performance
• For some program running on machine X:
PerformanceX = 1 / Execution timeX
• X is n times faster than Y means:
PerformanceX / PerformanceY = n
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Performance Equation I
seconds
cycles
seconds


program program
cycle
equivalently
CPU execution time
for a program
=
CPU clock cycles 
for a program
Clock cycle time
• So, to improve performance one can either:
– reduce the number of cycles for a program, or
– reduce the clock cycle time, or, equivalently,
– increase the clock rate
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Performance Equation II
CPU execution time
for a program
=
Instruction count  average CPI  Clock cycle time
for a program
• Derive the above equation from Performance Equation I
seconds
cycles seconds


program program
cycle
Average CPI:
•It provides one way to compare two different implementations of same ISA since
instruction count for a program remain same
•It defers with processor design
•It also depends on the mix of instruction types executed in an application.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
CPI Example
•
•
•
•
Computer A: Cycle Time = 250ps, CPI = 2.0
Computer B: Cycle Time = 500ps, CPI = 1.2
Same ISA
Which is faster, and by how much?
CPU Time
CPU Time
A
 Instructio n Count  CPI  Cycle Time
A
A
A is faster…
 I  2.0  250ps  I  500ps
B
 Instructio n Count  CPI  Cycle Time
B
B
 I  1.2  500ps  I  600ps
B  I  600ps  1.2
CPU Time
I  500ps
A
CPU Time
…by this much
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
CPI for Instruction Class
• CPU clock cycles can be computed by looking at different
types of instructions and using their individual clock cycle
counts.
• Formula:
n
CPU clock cycles =  (CPIi X Ci)
i=1
• Where, Ci is count of instructions of class I and CPIi is
number of cycles per instruction for that instruction class.
6
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
CPI Example
• Alternative compiled code sequences using instructions
in classes A, B, C

Class
A
B
C
CPI for class
1
2
3
IC in sequence 1
2
1
2
IC in sequence 2
4
1
1
Sequence 1: IC = 5


Clock Cycles
= 2×1 + 1×2 + 2×3
= 10
Avg. CPI = 10/5 = 2.0

Sequence 2: IC = 6


Clock Cycles
= 4×1 + 1×2 + 1×3
=9
Avg. CPI = 9/6 = 1.5
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Performance Summary
Instructio ns Clock cycles
Seconds
CPU Time 


Program
Instructio n Clock cycle
• Performance depends on
–
–
–
–
–
Algorithm: affects IC, possibly CPI
Programming language: affects IC, CPI
Compiler: affects IC, CPI
Instruction set architecture: affects IC, CPI
Clock cycle time and CPI are determined by
Implementation of the processor.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Evaluating Performance of a machine
• One way is to compare the execution time of the workload on two
different computers.
• Another better way is to evaluate a computer using set of
benchmark programs specially chosen to measure performance.
• The best type of programs to use for benchmarks are real
applications.
• For example, typical engineering or scientific applications
• For software development engineers benchmarks may include
programs such as compiler or word processing systems.
9
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Benchmarks
• Benchmark suites
–
–
–
–
Perfect Club: set of application codes
Livermore Loops: 24 loop kernels
Linpack: linear algebra package
SPEC: mix of code from industry organization
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
SPEC (System Performance Evaluation Corporation)
• Sponsored by industry but independent and self-managed –
trusted by code developers and machine vendors
• Clear guides for testing, see www.spec.org
• Regular updates (benchmarks are dropped and new ones added
periodically according to relevance)
• Specialized benchmarks for particular classes of applications
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
SPEC History
• First Round: SPEC CPU89
– 10 programs yielding a single number
• Second Round: SPEC CPU92
– SPEC CINT92 (6 integer programs) and SPEC CFP92 (14 floating point
programs)
– compiler flags can be set differently for different programs
• Third Round: SPEC CPU95
– new set of programs: SPEC CINT95 (8 integer programs) and SPEC CFP95
(10 floating point)
– single flag setting for all programs
• Fourth Round: SPEC CPU2000
– new set of programs: SPEC CINT2000 (12 integer programs) and SPEC
CFP2000 (14 floating point)
– single flag setting for all programs
– programs in C, C++, Fortran 77, and Fortran 90
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
CINT2000 (Integer component of SPEC
CPU2000)
Program
Language What It Is
164.gzip
175.vpr
176.gcc
181.mcf
186.crafty
197.parser
252.eon
253.Perlbmk
254.gap
255.Vortex
256.bzip2
300.twolf
C
C
C
C
C
C
C++
C
C
C
C
C
Compression
FPGA Circuit Placement and Routing
C Programming Language Compiler
Combinatorial Optimization
Game Playing: Chess
Word Processing
Computer Visualization
PERL Programming Language
Group Theory, Interpreter
Object-oriented Database
Compression
Place and Route Simulator
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
CFP2000 (Floating point component of SPEC CPU2000)
Program
Language
168.wupwise
171.swim
172.mgrid
173.applu
177.mesa
178.Galgel
179.art
183.equake
187.facerec
188.ammp
189.lucas
191.fma3d
200.sixtrack
301.apsi
Fortran 77
Fortran 77
Fortran 77
Fortran 77
C
Fortran 90
C
C
Fortran 90
C
Fortran 90
Fortran 90
Fortran 77
Fortran 77
What It Is
Physics / Quantum Chromodynamics
Shallow Water Modeling
Multi-grid Solver: 3D Potential Field
Parabolic / Elliptic Differential Equations
3-D Graphics Library
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Image Recognition / Neural Networks
Seismic Wave Propagation Simulation
Image Processing: Face Recognition
Computational Chemistry
Number Theory / Primality Testing
Finite-element Crash Simulation
High Energy Physics Accelerator Design
Meteorology: Pollutant Distribution
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Amdahl's Law
• Amdahl's law, also known as Amdahl's argument, is named
after computer architect Gene Amdahl
• This law is used to find the maximum expected improvement
to an overall system when only part of the system is improved.
15
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Amdahl's Law
Execution Time After Improvement =
Execution Time Unaffected +( Execution Time Affected / Amount of
Improvement )
Time before
Improvement
Time after
Improvement
16
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Amdahl’s Law
•
•
1
Speed-up =
Perfnew / Perfold =Exec_timeold / Exec_timenew =
f
(1  f ) 
P
Performance improvement from using faster mode is limited by the fraction
the faster mode can be applied.
Told
f
(1 - f)
Tnew
(1 - f)
f/P
17
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Example
• "Suppose a program runs in 100 seconds on a machine, with multiply
responsible for 80 seconds of this time. How much do we have to improve
the speed of multiplication if we want the program to run 4 times faster?"
How about making it 5 times faster?
• There is no amount by which multiple can be enhanced to achieve 5 times
increase in performance.
• Thus performance enhance possible with a given improvement is limited by
the amount that the improved feature is used.
• Principle: Make the common case fast
18
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Remember
•
Performance is specific to a particular program/s
– Total execution time is a consistent summary of performance
•
For a given architecture performance increases come from:
– increases in clock rate (without adverse CPI affects)
– improvements in processor organization that lower CPI
– compiler enhancements that lower CPI and/or instruction count
19
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Processor Design
Introduction
20
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Implementing MIPS Fetch/Execute
cycle
21
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
22
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus