Type Bryman
Alan
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Social Research Methods
Chapter 24: Qualitative data
analysis
Slides authored by Tom Owens
Qualitative data analysis
• General strategies:
– analytic induction
– grounded theory
• Coding:
– steps
– considerations
– problems
Page 565
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Analytic induction
A rigorous search for universal explanation of
phenomena:
1. Rough definition of research question
2. Hypothetical explanation
3. Data collection (examination of cases)
4. If any deviant cases found, redefine or reformulate
hypothesis
5. Continue until all cases fit hypothesis
Pages 566, 567
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
The process of analytic induction
Figure 24.1
Page 566
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Grounded theory
• Theory is derived from the data, which are
systematically gathered and analysed
• Iterative process
– repetitive interplay between data collection and
analysis / theory building
• Developments in grounded theory
– Straussian model more prescriptive
– term used loosely by researchers today
• Distinction between tools and outcomes
Pages 567, 568
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Tools of grounded theory
• Theoretical sampling
• Coding
– begins during initial stages of research
– important first step in generating theory
– progressive
• Theoretical saturation
• Constant comparison (between concepts/indicators)
Page 568
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Outcomes of grounded theory
• Concepts (produced by open coding)
• Categories (higher level of abstraction)
– core categories
• Properties (attributes of a category)
• Hypotheses (initial hunches)
• Theory
– explanation of relationship between concepts
– substantive or formal theory
Page 570
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Processes and outcomes in grounded theory
Figure 24.2
Page 571
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Memos
• Notes written by researchers to themselves
• Help to generate concepts and categories
– reminder of what terms mean
– encourage reflective thinking about emerging ideas
– crystallize ideas and keep researcher on track
• e.g. bus industry study (Bryman et al, 1996)
– in vivo code: ‘inheritance’ of company traits and traditions
from pre-deregulation period
Pages 573-574
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Criticisms of grounded theory
• Researcher cannot suspend awareness of theories and
concepts (Bulmer, 1979)
• Funding proposals require clear statement of aims, theories
and research questions
• Time consuming
• Does not necessarily produce a theory - usually specific
explanations of substantive issues
• Confusing use of terms ‘concepts’ and ‘categories’
• Fragments data - loss of context and narrative flow (Coffey &
Atkinson, 1996)
• Competing accounts of what is involved
Pages 574, 575
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Considerations in developing codes
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Of what general category is this item of data an instance?
What does this item of data represent?
What is this item of data about?
Of what topic is this item of data an instance?
What question about a topic does this item of data suggest?
What sort of answer to a question about a topic does this item of
data imply?
What is happening here?
What are people doing?
What do people say they are doing?
What kind of event is going on?
Page 575
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Steps and considerations in coding
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Code as soon as possible
Read through your initial set of transcripts
Do it again !!
Review your codes
Consider more general theoretical ideas in
relation to codes and data
6. Any one item or slice of data can and often
should be coded in more than one way
7. Do not worry about generating what seem to
be too many codes
8. Keep coding in perspective – it is not analysis
Pages 576, 577
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Turning data into fragments
– Cut and paste / code and retrieve
– not just a mechanical task of data
management, coding helps to generate
ideas and build theory
Pages 578
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Problems with coding
• Losing the context of what was said (extracting
sections of data)
• Fragmentation of data - loss of narrative flow (Coffey
& Atkinson, 1996)
• Narrative analysis as solution? (Riessman, 1993)
• Risk of only providing descriptive account of data
rather than theorizing
Page 578
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Thematic analysis
• One of the most common approaches to qualitative
data analysis
• Not an approach to analysis that has an identifiable
heritage or that has been outlined in terms of a
distinctive cluster of techniques
• Framework: National Centre for Social Research in
the UK
- ‘matrix-based method for ordering and synthesising
data’ (Ritchie et al, 2003)
Pages 578 - 581
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Using Framework for Bryman’s Disney study
Figure 24.3
Page 579
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Narrative analysis
• Storied nature of human recounting of lives and
events (contents of data)
– elicited personal narratives (Mishler, 1986)
– life history / biographical approach
• Narrative account produced in the interview (form of
data; the sources themselves)
– narrative analysis of transcripts (Riessman, 1993)
– certain kinds of question tend to elicit a narrative
Pages 582-586
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition
Secondary analysis of qualitative data
Secondary analysis offers rich opportunities not least
because the tendency for qualitative researchers to
generate large and unwieldy sets of data means that
much of the material remains under-explored.
But, it may be hard to understand the original context
and there may be ethical issues concerning
participant permissions.
Qualidata is an archival resource centre, established in
1994, and can be a useful reference point.
Pages 586, 587
Bryman: Social Research Methods, 4th edition