Ways of identifying situations
English Grammar
BA - 2nd semester
Lecture 10
Torben Thrane
Communications Model
Context
Channel
Sender
Message
Channel
Code
Receiver
The components of language study
Grammar
Meaning
Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology
Semantics
Syntax
Sound
Pragmatics
Lexicon
Sentences and propositions
Es wurde im Garten getantzt
Der blev danset i haven
*There was danced in the garden
> People were dancing in the garden
The same proposition, expressed by different sentences
belonging to three different languages (codes)
The basis of all translation
Sentence types
Declarative
(Statements)
Interrogative
(Questions)
(Jussive)
Commands
Tom is running
Is Tom running?
Run, Tom!
Someone is running
Who is running?
Run!
You gave Tom something What did you give Tom? GiveTom something
Types of questions
Yes - No Questions:
Is Tom running?
Answer
Yes or no
Tag-questions:
You gave Tom an umbrella, didn’t you?
You didn’t give Tom an umbrella, did you?
Yes (No)
No (Yes)
Wh-questions:
Who is running?
What did you give Tom?
Tom
An umbrella
Echo-questions:
You gave Tom WHAT?
An umbrella.
Wasn’t that
what he wanted?
Properties of yes-no questions
Tom was running
Was Tom running?
Tom might run
Might Tom run?
Tom ran
*Ran Tom? > Did Tom run?
- as opposed to Danish:
Er Tom løbet?
Løber Tom?
Løb Tom?
Verbs that may occur left of the
subject are AUX(ILIARIES)
Properties of Tag-questions
Tom was running, wasn’t he
Yes expected
Tom wouldn’t run, would he?
No expected
Tom ran, didn’t he?
(in spite of his promise)
Tom ran, did he?
(I knew he would)
- just like Danish:
Tom er løbet, er han ikke?
Tom er ikke løbet, er han?
Tom løb, gjorde han ikke?
At most one negation, either in
main question or in tagquestion
Properties of Wh-questions
Someone was running.
Who was running?
You gave Tom something
What did you giveTom?
You gave someone an umbrella
Who did you give an umbrella?
- just like Danish:
Hvem løb?
Hvad gav du Tom?
Hvem gav du en paraply?
The WH-word always comes
first, no matter what its syntactic function is (except...)
Properties of Echo-questions
What did you giveTom?
You gave Tom WHAT?
Who did you give an umbrella?
You gave WHO an umbrella?
How did you fix it?
You fixed it HOW?
- possible, but unusual in Danish:
HVAD gav du Tom?
HVEM gav du en paraply?
?Du reparerede den HVORDAN?
The WH-word takes the place
of its syntactic function in
declarative sentences
Long distance movement of WH-words
(more complex in Danish than English)
Hvem var det egentlig du sagde du havde læst en bog der handlede
om _ i Sydamerika?
Du sagde du havde læst en bog der handlede om en eller anden
i Sydamerika.
*Who was it you said you had read a book that was about _ in
South America?
Who was it you said you had read a book about _ in South America?
Indirect sentences
Statements:
She said that Tom was running
Questions:
She asked if Tom was running
Commands:
She ordered Tom to run
Verbs like say, ask, order, etc. are called performative verbs,
because they indicate what type of speech act the original
speaker performed when expressing the proposition [Tom runs]
Words like that, if, whether, etc. are called complementizers. They
connect the following subordinate clause to the performative as a
complement (object).
Factive
vs. non-factive
I regret that I sent that letter I suppose that I sent that letter
She knew that she sent it
She believed that she sent it
I understand that you sent it I assume that you sent it
These verbs presuppose
that the following proposition is factually true - i.e.
that the letter was sent
These verbs don’t
Scope of Negation (1)
I don’t regret that I sent
that letter
I regret that I didn’t sent
that letter
She didn’t know that she sent it
She knew that she didn’t send it
I don’t understand that you
sent it
I understand that you didn’t
send it
These verbs still presuppose
that the following proposition is factually true - i.e.
that the letter was sent
These verbs still presuppose
that the following proposition is factually true - i.e. that
the letter was NOT sent
Scope of Negation (2)
I don’t suppose that I sent
that letter
I suppose that I didn’t send that
letter
She didn’t believe that she
sent it
She believed that she didn’t send
it
I don’t assume that you
sent it
I assume that you didn’t
send it
These verbs don’t
- in fact it doesn’t really matter
where you put not.
Scope of Negation (3)
Scope with Factives:
Scope with Non-factives:
I do[n’t regret] that I sent it
I do[n’t suppose that I sent it]
She did[n’t know] that she
sent it
She did[n’t believe that she
sent it]
I do[n’t understand] that
you sent it
I do[n’t assume that you sent
it]
Conditionals:
Fact vs. hypothesis
Hypothesis
Time
Fact
US
Potential
Time
Necessity
Conditionals (1)
Hypothesis
Time
Fact
US
Potential
(a) If we see anything odd, we’ll let you know
(b) If we saw anything odd, we’d let you know
(c) If we had seen anything odd, we’d have let you know
(d) If we have seen anything odd, I don’t remember it
Conditionals (2)
Hypothesis
Time
Fact
US
Potential
(a) If (only) I had a better computer, I’d work twice as fast
(b) If (only) I had had a better computer, I’ d have worked
twice as fast
Conditionals (3)
Hypothesis
Time
Fact
US
Potential
Had I known better, I’d never have sent that letter
Possibility:
Hypothesis vs. Fact/Potentiality
Hypothesis
Time
Fact
US
Potential
Time
Necessity
Possibilities (1)
Hypothesis
Time
Fact
US
Potential
He might have told me that Tom was running (but he hasn’t)
He may have told me that Tom was running (but I doubt it)
Sml. He has told me that Tom was running (but I forgot)
Possibilitites (2)
Hypothesis
Time
Fact
US
Potential
The bridge might be blown up. (After all, there is a war on).
The bridge may be blown up. (We’ll see when we get there).
The bridge will be blown up. (I’ll do it myself).
The bridge could be blown up. (But it would be difficult).
The bridge can be blown up. (All we need is dynamite).
Possibilities (3)
Hypothesis
Time
Fact
US
The bridge could have been blown at any time
She can speak Portuguese =
She speaks Portuguese <>
She is speaking Portuguese
Potential