RESEARCH ARTICLE
Figures and figure supplements
Design principles of autocatalytic cycles constrain enzyme kinetics and force low
substrate saturation at flux branch points
Uri Barenholz et al
Barenholz et al. eLife 2017;6:e20667. DOI: 10.7554/eLife.20667
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Internal metabolite + Assimilated metabolite → (1 + δ) Internal metabolite
Assimilated
metabolite
Internal
metabolite
δ·Internal metabolite
Figure 1. A basic autocatalytic cycle requires an internal metabolite to be present in order to assimilate the
external metabolite into the cycle, increasing the amount of the internal metabolite by some amount, d.
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g6p
gluc
6pgi
6pgc
pyr
f6p
s7p
r5p
fbp
e4p
xu5p
ru5p
I 5 CO2
III
gluc
gap
dhap
pyr
5 rubp
+rubp
bpg
pep
5 rubp + 5 CO2 → 6 rubp
+pep
3pg
pep + gluc → 2 pep + pyr
rubp
2pg
CO2
pep
II
pyr
2 accoa
accoa
oaa
cit
icit
mal
glx
akg
fum
suc
sca
mal
+mal
mal + 2 accoa → 2 mal
Figure 2. Three representative autocatalytic cycles in central carbon metabolism: (I) The Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle (yellow); (II) The glyoxylate cycle
(magenta); (III) A cycle using the phosphotransferase system (PTS) to assimilate glucose (cyan). Assimilation reactions are indicated in green. Arrow
width in panels represent the relative carbon flux.
DOI: 10.7554/eLife.20667.004
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r5p
g6p
6pgi
6pgc
2 r5p
f6p
s7p
fbp
e4p
ru5p
CO2
5 CO2
4 xu5p
xu5p
+xu5p
4 xu5p + 2 r5p → 5 xu5p + 5 CO2
dhap
gap
Figure 2—figure supplement 1. An autocatalytic cycle assimilating ribose-5-phosphate using the pentose phosphate pathway. This cycle contains a
direct input reaction (rpi, dashed line) allowing the cycle to operate with broader sets of kinetic parameters than cycles missing this feature. A knockout
strain where rpi is eliminated, does not grow under ribose despite having the theoretical ability to do so.
DOI: 10.7554/eLife.20667.005
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g6p
6pgi
f6p
6pgc
kdg
fbp
dhap
gap
bpg
dhap
3pg
2pg
gap
gap + dhap → 2 gap
pep
+gap
pyr
Figure 2—figure supplement 2. An autocatalytic cycle assimilating dhap while consuming gap using the fba
reaction in the gluconeogenic direction. This cycle contains a direct input reaction (tpi, dashed line) allowing the
cycle to operate with broader sets of kinetic parameters than cycles missing this feature. According to fluxomics
data this cycle does not operate in vivo as a more energy efficient alternative in growth under glycerol is to use
the tpi reaction and proceed in the glycolitic direction in the lower part of glycolysis. A knockout strain where tpi
reaction is eliminated, does not grow under glycerol despite having the theoretical ability to do so.
DOI: 10.7554/eLife.20667.006
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Figure 3. Analysis of a simple autocatalytic cycle. (A) A simple autocatalytic cycle induces two fluxes, fa and fb as a function of the concentration of X.
These fluxes follow simple Michaelis-Menten kinetics. A steady state occurs when fa ¼ fb , implying that X_ ¼ 0. The cycle always has a steady state (i.e.
_
X_ ¼ 0) at X ¼ 0. The slope of each reaction at X ¼ 0 is Vmax =KM . A steady state is stable if at the steady state concentration ddXX < 0. (B) Each set of kinetic
parameters, Vmax;a ; Vmax;b ; KM;a ; KM;b determines two dynamical properties of the system: If Vmax;b > Vmax;a , then a stable steady state concentration must
exist, as for high concentrations of X the branching reaction will reduce the concentration of X (cyan domain, cases (I) and (II)). If
that
Vmax;b
Vmax;a
<
KM;b
KM;a ,
Vmax;b
KM;b
<
Vmax;a
KM;a ,
implying
then zero is a non-stable steady state concentration as if X is slightly higher than zero, the autocatalytic reaction will carry higher flux,
further increasing the concentration of X (magenta domain, cases (I) and (IV)). At the intersection of these two domains a non-zero, stable steady state
concentration exists, case (I).
DOI: 10.7554/eLife.20667.007
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Figure 4. Analysis of an autocatalytic cycle with input flux. (A) The effect of a fixed input flux, fi , on the possible
steady states of a simple autocatalytic cycle. A steady state occurs when fa þ fi ¼ fb . If Vmax;b > Vmax;a þ fi then there
is always a single stable steady state (I). If Vmax;b < Vmax;a þ fi then there can either be no steady states (II), or two
steady states where the smaller one is stable (III).
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(A)
(B)
fbn
A
fa2
A
Xn
fan
fb2
X2
fa2 . . . fan−1
X1
fa1
X1
fb1
fb1
X2
fa1
fb2
Figure 5. Generalization of analysis to multiple-reaction autocatalytic cycles with a single assimilating reaction. (A)
A two reaction system. (B) A generic n-reaction system. The system is at steady state when the total consumption
of intermediate metabolites by the branch reactions is equal to the flux through the autocatalytic reaction,
because the autocatalysis is in a 1:2 ratio. A sufficient condition for the stability of a steady state in these systems
is that the derivative of at least one branch reaction with respect to the substrate concentration is larger than the
derivative of the equivalent autocatalytic reaction at the steady state concentration. Given the connection between
derivatives of fluxes and saturation levels of reactions (see methods), this condition implies that at a stable steady
state, the saturation level of at least one branch reactions is smaller than the saturation level of the corresponding
autocatalytic reaction.
DOI: 10.7554/eLife.20667.009
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Prediction: XX% < YY%
Glucose input
g6p
gluc
pyr
for at least one branch reaction
6pgi
Fructose input
55%/75%
f6p
Acetate input
pep
f6p
aca
65%/100%
75%/70%
fbp
fbp 100%/70%
fruc
oaa
*
gap
pyr
gap
dhap
bpg
bpg
3pg
3pg
mal
glx
akg
fum
suc
sca
Galactose input
pep
aca
10%/30%
25%/20% oaa
2pg
cit
icit
2pg
45%/100%
30%/100%
pep
icit
15%/100%
pyr
dhap
cit
oaa
pyr
pep
mal
glx
akg
fum
suc
sca
oaa
pyr
Figure 6. Major branch points and relative enzyme saturation in operating autocatalytic cycles. Solid arrow width represents carbon flux per unit time.
Shaded arrow width represents the maximal carbon flux capacity per unit time, given the expression level of the catalyzing enzyme. In all cases there is
enough excess capacity in the branching reactions to prevent the cycle from overflowing. A 4% flux from pep to biomass was neglected in growth
under glucose and fructose. Only in one out of the nine branch points observed (the branch point at fbp in growth under fructose), the outgoing
reaction is significantly more saturated than the autocatalytic reaction. (*) A branch point at which the branching reaction is more saturated than the
autocatalytic reaction, which may result from neglecting fructose transport directly as f6p when deriving fluxes (see text).
DOI: 10.7554/eLife.20667.010
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