The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development
• The interaction of infants’ emotions and
their social context is dynamic
• This interplay is seen in a tiny baby smile at
an engaging face or a toddler flop to the
floor, kicking and screaming
1
Emotional Development in Infancy
• Within the first two years, infants progress
from reactive pain and pleasure to complex
patterns of social awareness.
• a period of life with high emotional
responsiveness…
2
Emotional Development in Infancy
• Specific Emotions
– infants progress from pleasure and pain
• happy and relaxed when fed, then drift off to sleep
• cry when hurt or hungry, are tired or frightened or
have colic
– social smiles are evoked by a human face, normally
evident about 6 weeks after birth
– anger is evident at 6 months
3
Emotional Development in Infancy
• Specific Emotions
– fully formed fear in response to some person,
thing, or situation emerges at about 9 months
• stranger wariness… infant no longer smiles at any
friendly faces, and cries if an unfamiliar person
moves to close, too quickly
• separation anxiety… expressed in tears, dismay, or
anger when a familiar caregiver leaves
4
Emotional Development in Infancy
• Specific Emotions
– separation anxiety is normal at age 1
• intensifies by age 2, and usually subsides after that
– 1-year-olds fear not just strangers but also
anything unexpected
– emotions that emerge in the first month
strengthen (reliable, distinct, recognizable) at
about age 1
5
Emotional Development in Infancy
• Self Awareness
– ... emotional growth that has the infant
realizing that his or her body, mine,
and actions are separate from those
of other people
• around age 1 an emerging sense of “me” and
“mine”
– self-recognition emerges at about 18
months
• pretending and using first person pronouns
– I, me, mine, myself, my
6
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
• Psychoanalytic Theory
– connects biosocial and psychosocial
development
• emphasizing the need for response maternal care
7
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
• Freud: Oral and Anal Stages
– the first year is the oral stage
• the mouth is the young infant’s primary source of
gratification
– the second year is the anal stage
• the infant’s main pleasure comes from the anus…
sensual pleasure of bowel movement… the pleasure of
controlling
8
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
• Erikson: Trust and
Autonomy
– first psychosocial crisis…
infants learn basic trust if the
world is a secure place where
their basic needs (for food,
comfort, attention, etc.) are
met
– second stage crisis of
psychosocial development …
toddlers either succeed or fail
in gaining a sense of self-rule
over their own actions and
bodies
9
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
• Behaviorism
– emotions and personality are molded as parents
reinforce or punish the child’s spontaneous behaviors
– Infants experience social learning… learning by
observing others
• apparent in families… from giggling to cursing… much
like their parents
10
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
• Cognitive Theory
– holds that thoughts and values determine a person’s
perspectives
• early experiences are important
– beliefs, perceptions and memories
– infants use early relationships to develop a working
model (remember schema)
• a set of assumptions that the individual uses to
organize perceptions and experiences
11
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
• Epigenetic Theory
– holds that every human characteristic is strongly
influenced by each person’s unique genotype… inborn
predispositions
12
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
• Temperament
– Inborn differences between
one person and another in
emotions, activity, and selfcontrol. Temperament is
epigenetic, originating in
genes but affected by childrearing practices.
13
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
• The Parents’ Role
– infant temperament often changes with adult
guidance
– interaction between culture influences and
inherited traits tend to shape behavior
– parents need to find a goodness of fit
• goodness of fit is a similarity of temperament and
values that produces a smooth interaction between
an individual and his or her social context, including
family, school, and community
14
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
• Sociocultural Theory
– “…human development occurs
in a cultural context.”
– sociocultural theorists argue
culture:
• has a substantial influence
on infants
• has a major impact on
infant-caregiver
relationships, thus the
development of the infant
So the is question…
How much influence does culture have?
15
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
• Ethnotheories
• ethnotheory
– a theory that underlies the values and practices of a culture
and that becomes apparent through analysis and comparison
of those practices, although it is not usually apparent to the
people within the culture
16
Theories About Infant Psychosocial Development
– Proximal and Distal Parenting
• proximal parenting
– parenting practices that involve close physical
contact with the child’s entire body, such as
cradling and swinging
• distal parenting
– parenting practices that focus on the intellect
more than the body, such as talking with the
baby and playing with an object
17
The Development of Social Bonds
• Synchrony
– is a coordinated
interaction between
caregiver and infant, an
exchange in which they
respond to each other
with split-second timing
18
The Development of Social Bonds
• Attachment
– After WWII, homeless & orphaned children presented
many difficulties to society
– John Bowlby, a psychoanalyst, is credited with first
articulating a Theory of Attachment
– According to, proximity-seeking to the attachment
figure in the face of threat is the "set-goal" of the
attachment behavioral system.[
– Ainsworth, writing in the 1960’s, atttachment “is an
affectional tie” that an infant forms with the
caregiver—a tie that binds them together in space and
endured over time
19
The Development of Social Bonds
• Measuring Attachment
– strange situation
• developed by Ainsworth
• a laboratory procedure for measuring attachment
by evoking infants’ reaction to stress
20
The Development of Social Bonds
• Secure and Insecure Attachment
– secure attachment
• relationships in which an infant obtains both
comfort and confidence from the presence of his or
her caregiver
– insecure-avoidant attachment
• a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids
connection with the caregiver, as when the infant
seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence,
departure, or return
21
The Development of Social Bonds
• Secure and Insecure Attachment
– insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment
• a pattern of attachment in which anxiety and
uncertainty are evident, as when an infant is very
upset at separation from the caregiver and both
resists and seeks contact on reunion
– disorganized attachment
• a type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s
inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure
and return
22
The Development of Social Bonds
• Secure and Insecure Attachment
23
The Development of Social Bonds
• Measuring Attachment
• Secure is more likely if:
–
–
–
–
–
The parent is usually sensitive and responsive to infant
There is high synchrony
The child’s temperament is “easy”
The parents aren’t stressed about income, marriage
The parents have a working model of secure attachment to
their own parents
24
Measuring Attachment, Con’t
•
Insecure is more likely if:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
The parent mistreats the child
The mother has a mental disorder
Parents are highly stressed about income, marriage
Parents are intrusive, controlling
Parents are alcoholics
The child’s temperament is difficult
The child’s temperament is “slow to warm up”
The Development of Social Bonds
• Insecure Attachment and Social Settings
– infants shift in attachment status between one
age and another
26
The Development of Social Bonds
• Social Referencing
– seeking information
about how to react to an
unfamiliar ambiguous
object or event by
observing someone
else’s expressions and
reactions—that other
person becomes a social
reference
27
The Development of Social Bonds
• Referencing Mothers
– most social referencing occurs with mothers
– infants heed their mother’s wishes, expressed in tone
and facial expression
28
The Development of Social Bonds
• Referencing Fathers
– increases in maternal
employment have expanded
the social references available
to infants
– fathers now spend considerable
time with their children
29
The Development of Social Bonds
• Infant Day Care
– more than ½ of all 1-year-olds in the U.S. are in
“regular scheduled” nonmaternal care
– family day care
• child care that occurs in another caregiver’s home—
usually the caregiver is paid at a lower rate than in
center care, and usually one person shares of several
children of various ages
– center day care
• child care in a place especially designed for the purpose,
where several paid providers care for many children.
Usually the children are grouped by age, the day care
center is licensed, and providers are trained and certified
in child development
30
The Development of Social Bonds
• Infant Day Care
– Normal social development can occur in Day Care
– The following characteristics are useful in identifying
quality day care:
• Adequate attention to each infant (2:5 adult to child ratio)
• Encouragement of language and sensorimotor development
• Attention to health and safety
• Professional caregivers (experience + degrees/certificates)
• Warm and responsive caregivers
Parents
• Parenting Style
– Diana Baumrind (1967, 1972) studied 100
preschooler, in California (middle class,
European Americans—the cohort and cultural
limitations of this sample were not obvious at
the time.)
• parents differed on four important dimensions
–
–
–
–
expressions of warmth
strategies for discipline
communication
expectations for maturity
32
Parents
• Baumrind’s Three Patterns of Parenting
• authoritarian parenting
– child rearing with high behavioral standards, punishment
of misconduct, and low communication
• permissive parenting
– child rearing with high nurturance and communication
but rare punishment, guidance, or control
• authoritative parenting
– child rearing in which the parents set limits but listen to
the child and are flexible
33
Baumrind’s Factors
• If you take two factors, Compassion and Control, you can make the
following Table:
High Control
Low Control
High
Compassion
Authoritative
Indulgent or
Permissive
Low
Compassion
Authoritarian
“neglect”
Parents
• Any parenting strategy will be affected by the
Temperament of both the parents and the
children.
• Signs of a positive outcome in students:
– Perseverance;
– reports of higher and authentic self esteem
– better grades
– more friends (ie. likable)
Parents
• Cultural Variations
• effective Chinese, Caribbean, and African American
parents are often stricter than effective parents of
northern or western European backgrounds
• Japanese mothers tend to use reasoning, empathy
and expressions of disappointment to control their
children more than North American mothers do
– it is important to acknowledge that multicultural and
international research has found that specific
discipline methods and family rules are less
important then parental warmth, support and
concern
36
Parents
• Discipline and Punishment
– discipline varies a great deal from family to
family, culture to culture
– ideal parents anticipate misbehavior and guide
their children towards patterns that will help
them lifelong
– disciplinary techniques do not work quickly or
automatically to teach desired behavior
37
Parents
• Discipline and Punishment
– first step is clarity
• what is expected
– each family needs to decide its goals and make them
explicit for the child
– second step is to remember
• what the child is able to do
– parents forget how immature children’s control over their
bodies and minds is
38
Parents
• Discipline and Punishment
– time-out
• an adult requires the child to sit quietly apart from
other people for a few minutes—for young children,
one minute per year of age
– withdrawal of love
• when the parent expresses disappointment or looks
sternly a the child, as if the child were no longer
loveable
– induction
• the parents talk with the child, getting the child to
understand why the behavior was wrong
39
Parents
• The Challenge of Media
– many parent allow television watching and/or
computers because they keep children
engaged
– parents often ignore the possible impact on
the emotionally immature child who is dazzled
by fast-moving images
– experts advise parents to minimize media
exposure
40
Identity
•
–
–
Erik Erikson – 1902-1994
•
•
•
a follower of Freud, interested in
culture diversity
social change
psychological crises
described eight developmental stages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair
Identity, Generally defined
A consistent definition of one’s self as a unique
individual, in terms of roles, attitudes, beliefs,
and aspirations.
42
Identity
– identity versus diffusion
• Erikson’s terms for the fifth stage of development, in
which the person tries to figure out “Who am I?” but is
confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt.
43
Identity, cont.
– identity achievement
• Erikson’s term for the attainment of identity, or the
point at which a person understands who he or she is
as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences
and future plans.
44
Identity, cont.
• Not Yet Achievement
– identity diffusion is the opposite of identity
achievement…
• it is a situation in which an adolescent does not seem
to know or care what his or her identity is.
– “Whatever.”
45
Identity, cont.
• Not Yet Achievement
– Foreclosure
• Erickson’s term for premature identity formation, which
occurs when an adolescent adopts parents’ or society’s
roles and values wholesale, without questioning and
analysis.
– short-circuit their search by not questioning traditional values
46
Identity, cont.
• Not Yet Achievement, cont.
– moratorium
• A way for adolescents to postpone making identity
achievement choices by finding an accepted way to
avoid identity achievement.
– going to college is the most common example
47
Identity
• If you take two factors, “Curiosity/Questions” and “Commitment”, you can
make the following Table:
Identity
High Curious
Low Curious
High
Commitment
Achieved
Foreclosed
Low
Commitment
Moratorium
Diffuse
Which Identity Style?
• Eleanor's parents are both physicians. In college
she chose to major in French and even spent a
semester in France studying French art and
culture. Upon graduation, she surprised her
parents by announcing that she intended to go to
medical school and had already made the
necessary applications. A close friend in nursing
and a summer job as a hospital volunteer had
helped her arrive at her decision. Eleanor's
identity status would probably be best described
as ______. Why?
Which Identity Style?
• Kevin has changed his college major several times; it
will be about six years before he graduates. Since his
parents have objected to this extra expense, Kevin has
cheerfully taken a variety of jobs ranging from shortorder cook to forest firefighter. He likes work that
allows him time to think and be alone; the handful of
friends he has are very much the same. Kevin's grades
are generally high, though his record is marred by a
number of "incompletes." He has had one very
satisfying relationship with a young woman and is
search rather anxiously for another. Kevin's' identity
status would probably be described as __________.
Why?
Which Identity Style?
• Wendy's mother is a psychologist who is heavily involved in
women's groups and women's issues. Wendy admires her
mother very much, having seen her strength tested in a
bitter divorce when Wendy was just eight years old. Wendy
believes that she, too, will be a strong and assertive young
woman. She avoids people (especially men) who either
doesn't see her in the light or try to bring out 'other sides'
she may have. She steers clear of her stepmother, who
(although pleasant) is, in Wendy's opinion, not a feminist.
Wendy' college grades are very high, and her course
selections reflect an unvarying interest in psychology,
politics, and women's studies. Wendy's identity status
would probably be described as ____________. Why?
Which Identity Style?
• Ronald is a freshman at a college near his old high school.
He chooses to come home nearly every weekend, but
doesn't enjoy himself once he is home. He doesn't'
participate in any family activities. He avoids talking to his
parents or old high school friends, preferring to spend his
time playing video games in his room. Periodically he
engages in impulsive shopping. After these sprees, he talks
excitedly about the new clothes or electronic gadget he's
acquired. He gets angry if his parents ask him what he is
going to do with his life, and angrier still if they patronize
him. Ronald is enrolled in a courses he has been told are
easy, and he does not have strong interests in these or any
other courses. Ronald's identity status would probably be
described as _________. Why?
Identity, cont.
• Four Arenas of Identity Achievement highlighted
by Erikson…
– religious identity
• few teenagers achieve
• most religions expect young people to struggle with
theological questions
– sexual or gender identity
• “sex/sexual” referring to biological male/female characteristics
• “gender” referring to cultural and social characteristics
53
Identity, cont.
• Four Arenas of Identity Achievement…
– “political” or “ethnic” identity
• political, identifying with a party
• ethnic, identifying with a person
– vocational identity
• few teenagers can find meaningful work
• most available jobs are different from in the past
• the required skills for many vocations take years to
attain – makes it premature to select at age 16
54
Personality
• Definitions
– There are many
– Not all psychologists agree on how to define
Personality
• A generally accepted definition:
– Long term patterned behavior that is influenced
by a range of factors, including Biological,
Cognitive, Social, and Motivational.
Persistent Problems in
Personality Theory
1. The mind-body problem
– Cartesian dualism: the viewpoint that mind and
body are separate entities.
2. Influences of situation vs. traits of a person.
3. Nature vs. nurture: a problem of causality
4. Determinism vs. freedom
56
Persistent Problems in
Personality Theory
5. Stability vs. change of personality over time
6. Reification: when people “concretize”
abstract concepts (anxiety, intelligence, etc.)
7. Extrapolation: extending known data into
unknown areas.
8. Diversity vs. Similarity
57
Methods for Studying Personality
•
•
•
•
•
Clinical case studies
Historical case studies
Laboratory studies
Psychological testing
Physiological methods
58
Validity and Measurement
• Validity: does a test really measure what
it claims to?
• The method of measurement depends on
what is being measured.
59
Reliability & Measurement
• Reliability is the consistency of
– a set of measurements or
– of a measuring instrument, often used to describe
a test.
– Reliability is inversely related to random error.
Broad types of Psychological Tests
• By using tests, psychologists attempt to
measure, explain, and predict their behavior
and personality.
• Two major categories:
– Projective Tests and Interviews
– Self-Report tests and Interviews
Tests
• Projective Tests
– Given that people are not good judges of their
own behavior, projective tests are used to uncover
aspects of a person's unconscious motives.
• The Rorschach, or inkblot test, is a series of inkblots
that the requires the test subject to make
interpretations of the inkblots. To make these
interpretations, the person must project their
personality into the ambiguous ink blot. The analysis of
this projection is what psychologists can use to discover
your personality.
Tests
• Self-Report Tests
– The Rorschach and other projective tests are difficult
to master and many scientists argue that these
projective tests are not reliable--that is, they don't
show consistency overtime. That argument aside, selfreport tests are often a simple and efficient way to
measure personality, mostly by the use of
questionnaires.
• The MMPI, for example, is a large questionnaire that asks
about 500 true-false questions that ask about behavior and
thoughts. By analyzing the responses, a pattern of
personality is found.
Typical Personality Assessment
• Most Assessments occur in the context of
discovering whether employees have the
aptitude and necessary traits to perform well
in a particular job.
– This is not technically “personality assessment”
• There are tests online
– Dating websites
– Just for fun
Typical Assessment
• Be cautious about online tests
– Many are not controlled, nor have scientific rigor
in analysing the results. There are good ones,
however:
• http://www.personal.psu.edu/~j5j/IPIP/
• This particular site uses the “trait” approach, and more
specifically uses the Big-5 test, or the NEO-PI
Typical Assessment
• In the case of a psychological evaluation, more
rigor and personal attention is given
– Perhaps for legal reasons, such as divorce,
understanding the motivations of someone who
commits a crime
– Perhaps for Mental Health reasons:
• To improve the effectiveness of psychotherapy or while
in the hospital
Psychological Assessment
• Personality/psychological tests may:
– Include an Intelligence test
– Last 3 hours to days (with several breaks)
– Will use a combination of various tests:
• Interviews
• Self-Report questionnaires
• Projective tests
Hypothesis testing and Personality
• Throughout it’s history, Psychology and it’s
practitioners, as all sciences, have discovered
that their beliefs about the causes of behavior
can be wrong.
• To prevent this, psychologists are trained to
approach a personality assessment as an
opportunity to test and rule out hypotheses.
Hypothesis Testing
• What are some ways that a psychologist would be
able to generate hypotheses about a person’s
personality?
–
–
–
–
–
–
Reports,
Police
Hospital
School
Employer
In person interview, perhaps even at the beginning of
the formal assessment.
Hypotheses and Personality
• The goal is to make predictions and hypotheses
about a person, and then to use the tests to rule
those hypotheses out.
– For example, perhaps you are hypothesizing that a
person is afraid to speak up for themselves
• There are self-report tests that measure this behavior
• There are interview techniques that can elicit this behavior,
or even to relax it
– The point is to use various sources to rule out your
hypotheses. If you can’t, then you may be getting
close to being able to describe a person’s personality.
Major personality Theories
• Psychoanalysis
• Humanistic
– Existential vs Humanistic
• Trait
• Social cognitive
Psychoanalysis
• Joseph Breuer was Freud's mentor and it is given
some credit for the beginning of psychoanalysis
• Began in late 1800s
• Tenants include:
– Motivation is caused by unconscious drives
– These drives conflict with social norms and
appropriateness
– Anxiety ensues
– Defense mechanisms:
• 1. Reduce anxiety, and
• 2. Protect self esteem.
Structure of personality
• Freud theorized 3 structures:
– The ID
– The ego
– The super ego
• We’re born with the ID which operates on the
“pleasure principle”.
• The ego and super ego are developmental
milestones.
Structure, continued
• The ego operates on the “ reality principle “
• Literally the ID translate to “ the it”
• The ego translates to “I”
• The super ego translates to “above I“
• Metaphorically, think of a cartoon with a a moral
dilemma. What are two apparitions that appear
on either shoulder?
Defense mechanisms
• There are many different types of defense
mechanisms (comment on objectivity)
• Here is a sample:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Denial
Repression
Projection
Reaction formation
Rationalization
Sublimation
Displacement
Defense mechanisms, con’t
• We develop defense mechanisms through our lives
• Some are more primitive than others;
– For instance repression is psychologically more advanced
than denial.
• Freud didn’t say the following, just note that this is
more contemporary:
• Defense mechanisms are created by
–
–
–
–
Genetic predispositions
Childhood experiences (Freud's emphasis)
Specific instruction from parents
Behavioral reinforcement
Personality development in
psychoanalysis
• One of Freud's more controversial series includes
how we developed our personality structures
• He posited for stages with a “period” after the
third stage :
–
–
–
–
–
Oral stage, 0-1 year
Anal stage, 1-3 years
Phallic stage, 3-5 years
Latency period, 5-11 years
Genitals stage, adolescence and adulthood
Personally development
• This is controversial because Freud had to
theorize reasons for it behavior that he witnessed
in children and adults.
• Unfortunately, his method allowed for much
interpretation and some have suggested that
much of Freud's theory is actually a projection of
his own personality
• However, Freud was an astute observer and many
of his observations, and certainly descriptions of
the defense mechanisms are clearly face valid.
personality development
• Remember that in the history of the world
“the machine” was the dominant worldview,
with a presumption of that there had to be
some energy pushing us into action
• Early in his career Freud literally believed that
he could empirically measure this energy
almost like a fluid
• This energy, called “libido”, flowed through
our bodies.
Libido
• It was this energy that’s allowed us to
experience life and pleasure
• And literally, he believed this energy could get
“hung up” in particular places of your body.
• This is not that different, from the Greeks
suggesting that our organs could move about
inside our body
Libido
• Developmentally, it is normal for this libido to
progress from one body area to another. These
are otherwise known as erogenous zones
• However, if a person encountered some sort of
psychological trauma it is possible for this libido
to get stuck in one of these zones.
• So, your personality is too a large extent
dependent on whether your libido got stuck at
any one particular stage during development
Oral stage
•
•
•
•
•
•
From birth to 1 year
Remember the “ pleasure principle”
Pleasure is attained through putting things in the mouth
Frustration is first experienced
If frustrated too much, the child can get stuck in this stage
If weaned too soon, the world is unsafe and the person acts
hostile and angry and “bitter”, may exhibit “ biting
sarcasm”.
• If too late, a person can become demanding, passive, with
low frustration tolerance
Anal stage
• Approximately 1 – 3 years
• The anus becomes the source of pleasure in
that children learn the autonomy of control
• Who is the boss of me?
• If toilet trained too soon, a person may
become stingy, overly cleanly, overly organized
• If too late, a person is disorganized, messy
Phallic stage
• 3 -5 years
• Controversial, and somewhat complicated
• The genital region awakens with libido
– How young do children begin to masturbate?
• Boys and girls begin to notice differences
between the sexes
• Each are theorized to develop “stories” about
these differences
Phallic
• Boys come to believe that girls have been
castrated
• Boys notice and begin to want mom’s
attention, a sort of possessive demand
• Mom is the object of the boy’s desire
– Examples
• Dad is a competitor. And he will castrate youthis is called the oedipus complex
Phallic
• So boys, have a conflict and the way they
resolve it is to become more like dad
– Gender appropriate behavior, I wanna be like dad,
with a masculine life
• Note that this solution is a reaffirmation of
sublimation
Phallic for girls
• Girls want to possess dad, which is known as
the electra complex
• Notes that the object of affection for boys is
consistent, where girls switch from mom to
dad
• Girls have “penis envy”, which for that period
of time represented power
Phallic for girls
• So, girls must live vicariously through the
power of a man
• “if I take on a gender role of a woman (like
mom) then I can obtain a man like dad”
• All pretty hypothetical, eh?
• Note the similarity to sublimation
Latency period
• Conflict and anxiety subside or what Freud
calls latency.
• Kids appear to focus on learning how to learn
and playing with same sexed peers
Genital stage
• The final stage of development and Freud's stage
theory.
• Basically with the onset of puberty the genital
region awakens, and you pick up where you left
off from the phallic stage
• If the phallic stage ended with sublimation into
gender roles then as adults you will be able to
relate to other adults, both of the same and
opposite sex.
• Otherwise, you may have neurotic tendencies
Other psychodynamic theories
• Freud had a large emphasis placed upon sexuality
and libidinal drives. Others disagreed.
• Karen Horney believed men had “Womb envy”
because only women can truly create another
life. She also gave more attention to social
relationships then did Freud.
• Carl Jung was considered by Freud to be his heir
apparent, but they parted ways over serious
disagreement about our motivations.
Others, continued
• Carl Jung is probably most well known for his
idea called the collective unconscious
• Erik Erikson, we’ve covered, but he focused on
anxiety caused by loss of connection to
socially important others
• Current psychoanalysis is more commonly
referred to “ object relations theory” which
emphasizes anxiety surrounding relationships