Chapter 12
Experimental
methods
Contents
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Introduction
Principles of experimental research
Validity
Quasi-experimental designs
Experimental methods in leisure and tourism research
Introduction
• Use of experimental methods in leisure and
tourism research thought to be rare
• In fact, it is surprisingly common – see
examples in the last section
A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge
Principles
• Components:
– Dependent variable
– Independent or treatment variable
– Treatment of experimental group of subjects
– Control group of subjects
A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge
Classic experiment (Fig. 11.1)
RS
Random selection of subjects from the population
1. Subjects randomly allocated to groups
Treatment
group: Rt
Control
group: Rc
2. Pre-test observation for both groups
Ot1
Oc1
3. Experimental treatment applied to
treatment group only
4. Post-test observation: both groups
measured again
5. Comparisons made
A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport
Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge
X
Oc2
Ot2
Oc1 – Ot1
Ot2 – Ot1 etc
Validity
• Factors which raise doubts as to whether
change in the dependent variable can be
attributed entirely to the independent
variable/treatment
A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge
Threats to Validity (Fig. 11.2)
Internal validity
Maturation
History
Testing
Instrumentation
Selection bias
Mortality
Experimental design-related
Change to subject during the study period – eg. fatigue.
External change during study – eg. weather conditions.
The test/observation process itself may affect subjects
Inconsistency / unreliability in measuring/observation.
Treatment /control groups significantly different
Attrition of subjects from a study.
External validity
Generalised beyond the study subjects and setting.
Reactive effects
Tests/observation may sensitise/affect subjects
of testing
Effects of selection Subjects may not be representative of wider population
A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge
Quasi-experimental design
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Examples:
One-shot: No control group, No pre-test
One group pre-test/post-test: No control group
Static group comparison: No pre-test
Latin square: two or more treatments in different
sequences
A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge
Experiments and sport projects
• One research project is likely to comprise
many experiments
• Projects are therefore likely to be exploratory/
inductive
A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge
Experimental methods in sport research (Fig. 11.14)
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Mostly quasi-experiments
Training/coaching
Sport policy/management pilot/trial projects
Psychological/perceptual
Equipment
Experimenting with research methods
Children's physical activity/play
Other:
A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge
Experiments in leisure/tourism research contd
• Other approaches:
– Action research – researcher involved with subjects in joint
action
– Discrete Choice Experiments – hypothetical choices
– Q methodology – choices involve ordering cards
– Qualitative methods: non-standardised interviewing is a form
of ‘treatment’
– Mind mapping: using MRI scanners
A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge
Experimental methods: Case studies
11.1 Training patterns and performance
11.2 Visual and auditory cues and behaviour
11.3 Pre-competition stress
11.4 Sport participation promotion projects: review
11.5 Sport and crime reduction
11.6 Psychological/perceptual studies
11.7 Players and sporting equipment
11.8 Experiments with research methods
11.9 Children’s physical play experiments
11.10 Discrete choice experiment: sport facility preferences
of soccer attendees
A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge