EARLY ANDROGENS ARE RELATED TO CHILDHOOD
SEX-TYPED TOY PREFERENCES
SheriA. Berenbaum
I and Melissa Hines2
IDepartmentof Psychologyand Departmentof Psychiatryand Behllvioral Sciences.University of Health
Sciences/TheChicagoMedical School. and 2Departmentof Psychiatryand BiobehllvioralSciences.UCLA School of
Medicine. Universityof California. Los Angeles
the patient or control statusof subjects.
We hypothesizedthat CAH girls would
show 8feater preferencefor boys' toys
than their unaffected female relatives,
and reduced preferencefor girls' toys.
We did not predict effectsfor CAH boys
becauseandrogentreatment has incon.
sistent effects in male experimentalanimals (Baum &. Schretlen, 197.5;Dia.
mond. Llacuna, & Wong, 1973).
I
CAH produce high levels of adrenal anAbstract-Girls with cong~nital adr~nal
hyp~rplasia (CAR) who w~r~ ~xpos~d to I drogens beginning in ut~ro. Postnatal
treatment with corticosteroids (and minhigh '~v~ls 01 andro,~n in th~ pr~natal
eralocorticoids for the 75% who are also
and ~arly postnatal p~riods show~d insalt-~osers) nonnalizes honnone levels
cr~as~dp/Qy with boys' toys and r~duc~d
play with girls' toys compar~d with th~ir I (WhIte, New, &:. Dupont, 1987).
If early honnone exposure affects the
un~xpos~dI~ma/~ r~/atives at a,~s 3 to I
development of sex-typed behavior in
8. Boys with CAR did not differ from
human beings as it does in other species,
th~ir ma/~ r~/atives in play with boys' or
then CAH girls should show behavior
girls' toys. Th~se r~sults sugg~st that
similar to that of normal boys. Previous
early hormon~ exposur~ in/~males has a
I
studies have suggested that CAH femasculinizing ~ff~ct on s~x-typ~d toy
males show intense physical eneray expr~/erences.
penditure, "tomboyism," rough outdoor
play, preference for traditionally masculine toys and activities (Ehrhardt &:.
Sex differences in children"s toy prefBaker, 1974; Ehrhardt, Epstein, &:.
erences have been demonstrated repeatedly" Boys prefer constrUction and transMoney, 1968),and greater spatial ability
portation toys. whereas girls prefer
than their female relatives (Resnick, Berenbaum, Gottesman, &:. Bouchard,
dolls. don fumishin,s. and kitchen sup1986). These findings parallel those replies (Connor & Serbin. 1977; Liss.
1981). These preferences appear to be
poned in other sampleswith prenatal expartially leamed. through modelina and
posure to ~ul~nizing
h.onnonesdue to
reinforcement. For example. children at
maternal Ingestion dunn, pregnancy
various stages of development emulate
(Ehrhardt &:. Meyer-Bahlburg, 1979;
the behavior of same-sex models in prefHines, 1982),and are especially interesterence to opposite-sex ones (Bussey &
ing in light of recent repons of sex difBandura. 1984; Huston. 1983). We
ferences in human brain structure (Allen,
Hines, Shryne. &:.Gorski. 1989;Hines &:.
present evidence that these sex-typed
toy preferences are also related to preGreen, 1991; Swaab &:.Fliers, 1985).
Although prior studies of CAH girls
natal or neonatal hormones (androlens).
Gonadal hormones playa major role
suggest that honnones can influence
in the development of sex differences in
childhood
behavior,
methodologicallimbehavior and the brain in a variety of
itations
encouraged
us to pursue
this
issue. Specifically, in prior studies, (a) bespecies. including rodents, songbirds.
and primates (Arnold &:. Gorski. 1984; havior was assessed from interviews
Beatty, 1979; Goy & McEwen. 1980; rather than direct observation; (b) data
Mac Lusky & Naftolin, 1981). A unique
were collected with knowledge of the paopponunity to study hormonal influ- I tient or control status of the subject; (c)
METHOD
Subjects
I
I
I
I
We recruited 3- to 8-year-oldchildren
with CAH from pediatricendocrineclinics at eight hospitalsin the Midwest and
California and tested 26 girls and II
boys. Becauseof the restrictedagerange
studied and family constellations. only
16 patients (43%) had a same-sexcontrol. Therefore.we combinedrelativesof
male and female patients to obtain our
control groups.The control groupsconsisted of 15 unaffectedfemale relatives
(10sistersand 5 first cousins)and 18unaffectedmalerelatives(14brothersand4
I
I
ences on human sex-typed behavior is
provided by the genetic disorder congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Because
of an enzymatic defect. individuals with
Addresscorrespondenceto Sheri A. Berenbaum,Departmentof Psychology.University of Health Sciences/'l"be
Chica,o MedicaJ
School,3333GreenBay Rd., North Chicaao.
IL~.
YOLo 3. NO.3. MAY 1992
behaviors were usually rated as present
or absent, rather than as continuous
traits; and (d) masculine and feminine
behaviors were often not assessedsepaIrately, but instead treated as opposite
ends of a sinaie continuum. Therefore,
the present study of individuals with
CAH focused on objective, quantifiable
measures of sex-typed toy preferences,
I with assessmentsmade by raters blind to
I
first cousins).Patientsandcontrolsdid
not differ significantly in birth order or
age. Mean agesin months were as follows: female patients.66.54(ranle: 3699); female controls. 61.80 (range: 3693);malepatients.64.18(range:41-101);
and male controls. 69.78(range:33-99).
Illness Characteristics
Although behavioralchangesin CAH
girls may be causedby androgeninfluences on the developina brain, it has
beensuggestedthat thesechangesmight
insteadresult from social or illness factors (Quadagno,Briscoe, &. Quadagno,
1977;Slipjer, 1984).For example, becauseandrogenlevels are high in ult-rO,
females have masculinized aenitalia.
Suraical reconstruction is often neces-
Copyrlpt C 1992AmericanPsychololicalSociety
203
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Hormonesand Toy Preferences
sary, although postnatal treatment pre- the toys howeverhe or shewanted. The
vents further virilization. Parents may 12-minsessionwas videotapedfor later
treat their CAH daughtersin a masculine scoring.The first 10min of each session
fashion as a responseto this masculine wereusually scored;the additional2 min
appearanceat birth. Therefore,we asked were scoredonly if sectionsof the initial
10min were unscorable(e.g., if the child
parents to complete a questionnaire
attempted
interaction with the videowhich included the item "I encourage
taper).
Order
of testing the patient and
my child to act as a girl should." The
control was random.
questionnairewas availablefor 24 CAH
We scored the amount of time the
and 11control girls.
child played with each toy and then
We also examinedcharacteristicsof
the child's disease:ageat diagnosis,de- summedthe time spentin play with the
gree of genital virilization at diagnosis, toys in each of the three categories,to
and salt-losing status. This information producetotal scoresfor play with boys'
toys, girls' toys, and neutral toys. All
was obtained from medical records,
availableon 25 girls and 10boys. Medi- tapeswere rated by the sametwo raters.
cal ratings were made by two research who had not testedthe children and who
assistantswho had no knowledgeof the were blind to their patientor control stachild's behavioralscores.Age at diagno- tus. Interrater reliability was very high:
sis and salt-losing status were recorded The mediancorrelation was .99 for indiwith perfect reliability. Most patients vidual toys and .99for total scores.Data
were diagnosedin the early neonatalpe- reponed here representthe meanscores
riod: Median age at diagnosis was 11 of the two raters.!
days for girls (range: 0 days to 64
months)and 30 days for boys (range: 14
days to 54 months). Degree of virilizaRESULTS
tion was rated on a scalerangingfrom 0
(normal female)to 6 (normal male), with
Statistical tests are one-tailed when
intermediate values reflecting varying hypothesesare directional (sex differdegreesof clitoral enlargementand fu~ encesand femaJeCAH-control comparsion of the labia (Prader, 1954).Interisons for time spent in play with boys'
rater reliability was .82; mean ratings and girls' toys) and two-tailed when no
were used. AU girls had some degreeof
difference is hypothesized(all comparigenital virilization: The mean Prader sonsfor play with neutral toys) or when
score was 3.0 (range: 1-5). One girl had the direction of the difference is not
been raised as a boy for the 1st month.
specified (male CAH-control comparisons).
Toy Preference Materials
and Procedure
Sex Differences
Toy preferencewas measuredby the
amount of time the child played with
As expected. control boys and girls
toys shown by others to be preferredby
differed in the amount of time they
girls, by boys, or equally by the sexes played with boys' toys and girls' toys.
(neutral). The boys' toys included trans- but not neutral toys (see Fig. I). The
portation toys (a helicopter, two cars, magnitudesof the differences (in stanand a fire engine)and construction toys dard deviation units. or d; Cohen, 1977)
(blocks and Lincoln Logs). The girls'
are consistent with those reported by
toys included three dolls, kitchen sup- other investigators. Further. control
plies, a toy telephone, and crayons and boys preferred boys' toys to girls' toys.
paper. Neutral toys, used as a control,
1(17)= 4.58. P < .001.Control girls had
included books, two board games,and a
jigsaw puzzle. The toys were arrangedin
a standardorder on the floor of the peI. Two children (both CAH Sirls) who
diatric clinic or the child's home, in an playedwith no toys durinatheir sessionswere
area approximately 8 ft by 10 ft sur- excluded from all analyses.These sirls are
similar to the other subjectsin diseasecharrounded by screens.
The child was brought into the play acteristics.Analysesincludingthesesubjects
do not changethe interpretationof the results.
area individually and told to play with
204
the opposite preference. but the differencewas not significant.t( 14) = - 1.17.~
CAH Patient-Control
Comparisons
Females
As hypothesized, CAH girls spent
significantly more time playing with
boys' toys than did control girls (d =
.89), 1(37)
= 2.66, p <
.01, and about as
much time as the control boys (seeFig.
I). Further, like control boys, CAH girls I
playedsignificantly morewith boys' toys:
then with girls'
toys, 1(23)
= 2.93, p
<
.01. This effect is also seenin the subsampleof patients with a same-sexrelative control (N = II pairs): The mean
time in play with boys' toys was 327.23s
for CAH girls and 166.55s for matched
girls, 1(10) = 2.20,p < .05.
CAH girls also played less with girls'
toys than did the control girls, 1(37) =
- 2.02,p < .05, but this effect is smaller
than that for boys' toys (d = .65). Perhaps becauseof low statistical power,
the difference is not significant in
matched-pairsanalysisof the II patientcontrol pairs, 1(10) = -1.09.
Because
total play time was limited, play with one
set of toys tended to reduce play with
another set, so reduced play with girls'
toys may have partly resulted from increasedplay with boys' toys. In fact, the
correlations. among play with boys',
girls', and neutral toys are all moderately
negative, ranging from - .30to - .69 (all
ps < .01, one-tailed). In this context,
however, it is important to note that
there were no differencesbetweenCAH
and control girls in play with neutral toys
(both matched and unmatchedI-values
< 1.0).
There were no significant differences
between CAH and control girls in parents' responsesto the question "I encouragemy child to act as a girl should,"
with 59.1% and 63.6% responding
"yes," respectively. Amount of time
spent playing with sex-typed toys was
not significantly related to any disease
2. Becausethe distributionsof play scores
are skewed. we conducted all analyses on
data transformedin various ways (e.g.. arcsine. square root) and with nonparametric
procedures.All analytic proceduresproduced
similar results.
VOL. 3, NO.3, MAY 1992
Sheri A. Berenbaumand Melissa Hines
-,
.
or
~.
.
~~:::;
.E.
~~
i ~~
f
0-
~;:'}
c.-Q CN4 9
po. III
po.M)
c . Neutral Toys
B. Girts' Toys
A. Boys'Toys
.. ...
:~
!
.
.
J~r
c-.
.,..,.d c...d
"'."1
,...
-9...d
.. It"
_Q-d
-9-d
.oa
Fig. 1. Time spentin play with sex-typedtoys by femaleand maleCAH patientsand controls during 10min of play. Scoresare
the sumof play with individual toys and thereforemay exceed600s. Barsrepresentgroup means;lines representstandarderrors;
points representindividual subjects;d = differencebetweengroup means/average
standarddeviation. Group differenceswere
evaluatedby t test; .p < .05, ..p < .01, ...p < .001,one-tailed.
and behavioral ratings made without
knowledgeof patient or control status.
The data also suggesta relative defeminizationof toy preferences,althoughthis
result was less robust. Other studiesof
are - .09, - .14,and - .06.Note. how- hormone-exposed samples have also
been more likely to observe"masculinever. that the small sample size and reizing" than "defeminizing" effects of
stricted range (e.g., only 2 girls were
prenatal hormones,perhapsin part besimple virilizers) reduce the power of
causethe studieshave concentratedon
these analyses.
the former (Berenbaum,1990;Ehrhardt
& Meyer-Bahlburg,1979;Hines, 1982).
Males
Although other hormones,such as 17In contrast to the differences obhydroxyprogesterone and corticosteserved between CAH and control girls.
roids, are also abnormal prenatally in
there were no significant differences beCAH, it is unlikely that they accountfor
tween CAH boys and control boys on
the masculinizedbehaviorin CAH girls,
sex-typed play (ps > .20 for play with
becausethese hormones have smaller
boys' and girls' toys). Examination of
and
less consistent behavioral effects
medical characteristics in relation to sexthan androgenand may actually prevent
typed play in boys is not meaningful bemasculinization (Erpino, 1975; Hull.
cause of the lack of patient-control difFranz, Snyder, & Nishita, 1980).
ferences and limited variability in the
It appearsunlikely that the behavioral
sample.
changesare due to social or illness factors. Our failure to find relationshipsbeDISCUSSION
tween sex-typedplay and physicalvirilLarge differencesbetweenCAH girls ization is consistentwith other data in
and unaffectedfemalerelatives indicate CAH patientsindicating no relationship
betweendegreeof virilization and genmasculinization of toy preferences in
girls exposedto high levels of androgen der-role behavior (Slipjer, 1984). Alduring early development.Theseresults though it is possiblethat any virilization
are consistent with data from animal results in different parental treatment,
this argumentis weakenedby parents'
modelsand with prior studies of CAH
and other femalesexposedto masculin- retrospectivereports that they did not
izing honnones in utero. Our findings treat CAH girls in a "masculine" fashstrengthenthe conclusionsof previous ion, here and in other studies(Ehrhardt
play studies in CAH girls becausewe & Baker, 1974;Resnick, 1982),and by
used objective. quantifiable measures data from rhesus macaquesindicating
characteristic. For play with boys' toys.
rs are - .10 for virilization. - .29 for age
at diagnosis. and .25 for salt-losing status
(I = salt-loser. 0 = simple virilizer). For
play with girls' toys. corresponding rs
YOLo 3. NO.3. MAY 1992
that masculinization of juvenile play is
unrelated to genital virilization or maternal behavior (Goy, Bercovitch, & McBrair, 1988).Nevertheless, given the disproportionate rate of return of questionnaires for our CAH and control girls and
other problems inherent in questionnaire
measures, direct observation of parental
behavior would be valuable.
Our data indicate no changes in sextyped toy preferences in CAH males,
consistent with previous reports in nonhuman animals and people. CAH males
have generally been reported not to differ from controls in sex-typed activities
or abilities (Ehrhardt & Baker, 1974;
Resnick et al., 1986).
Although the data are consistent with
an androgen influence on sex-typed toy
choices, it is not necessary that hormones have a direct influence on these
choices. Hormones may affect toy
choices indirectly, perhaps through an
influence on activity level, motor skills,
abilities, or temperament. For example,
CAH girls may be more active than control girls, and boys' toys may facilitate
active play (O'Brien & Huston, 1985).
Results from this study may also be
relevant to understanding the development of sex-typed toy preferences in
normal children. Normal males have
higher testosterone levels than normal
females from approximately week 8 to
week 24 of gestation and from approximately the 1st to the 5th month of life
(Smail, Reyes, Winter, & Faiman, 1981).
These sex differences in hormones may
205
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Honnonesand Toy Preferences
contribute to subsequent sex differences
in behavior. such as those in toy preferences. Further. natural variations in levels or availability of testosterone among
nonnaJ males and females might contribute to individual differences in sex-typed
behavior.
Our data may also be relevant to evidence that early sex-typed toy preferences predict later behavior. including
sexual orientation (Green. 1987)and spatial ability (~e~.combe. Bandura. & Taylor. 1983; Shennan. 1967). and to evidence that spatial ability (Resnick et aJ.,
1986) and ~exual orientation (Money.
Sch~"anz. &: Lc~"is. 1984) are masculinized in CAH females (for discussion. see
Berenbaum. 19901.Specifically. it is possible that hormonal innuences on adult
behaviors are mediated by childhood
sex-typed toy prefercnces. although it is
also possible that various sex-typed behaviors are innucnced separately by hormone~ (Arnold &: Gorski. 1984; Goy &
McE~.en. 1980; Goy ct al.. 1988). Further ~tudies of CAH and other endocrine
syndrome.. !ohould help us to understand
not only ~hcthcr ~Clnadalhormones influence human t\Chavior. but also how
the)" do !oo.
Acknowlcdsmmc-Thi\
\tudy ~'as sup-
poned b) Sational In"titules of Health
Grant\ HD19644. HD~4542. and
SS~7, We thank the follo~'ing people
~'ho contrit-uted to thi\ project: Drs.
StephenDuck. On'ille Green.Ora Pesco,;u. Julio Santi~o. Jo Anne Brasel.Roben Clemon\. Genrude Costin. Richard
Fefferman. Lynda Fisher. Francine
Kaufman. and Thomas Roe generously
pro,'ided aece~sto their patientsand answeredmedicalque~tions:BrendaHendenon. Andrt Black. Ruth Estes. Erin
Foy. Kim Kern~. Deena Krumdick. Jennifer La"'rence. Naomi Lester. Anne
Max~'ell. Kristie Nies. Ellen Rochman.
Robyn Reed. Elizabeth Snyder. and
ChristopherVerbin helped~;th data col&ection.scoring.entry. and analysis:Kim
Kernsestabli~heda ~uperbdata-entryand
trackins system. "'e are particularly
pateful to the subjectsand their parents
for their enthusiasmand cooperation.We
also thank ~tichael Bailey. Susan
Resnick. ~tichael Taylor. and Gary Oltmansfor helpful commentson this paper.
Portions of this paper ~'ere presentedat
the meetinsof the Societyfor Researchin
Child Development. Kansas City. April
1989.
206
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YOLo 3, NO.3, MAY 1992