JGVW 7 (1) pp. 21–40 Intellect Limited 2015
Journal of Gaming & Virtual Worlds
Volume 7 Number 1
© 2015 Intellect Ltd Article. English language. doi: 10.1386/jgvw.7.1.21_1
Suzanne de Castell
University of Ontario Institute of Technology
HECTOR LARIOS
Simon Fraser University’s School of Interactive Arts + Technology
JENNIFER JENSON
York University
David Harris Smith
McMaster University
The role of video game
experience in spatial
learning and memory
Abstract
Keywords
Video game playing has been associated with improvements in cognitive abilities
that predict success in STEM fields, and therefore understanding this relationship
is important. In two experiments, we used a virtual Morris Water Maze (VMWM)
with and without proximal cues to measure spatial learning as a total of 82 video
game experts and novices completed a search task across several trials. We measured
the participants’ path lengths and tested their mental rotation abilities. The results
showed that proximal cues improved overall performance. With no visible cues,
experts exhibited better performance than novices when their memory for the general
location of the platform was probed. With visible cues, video game experts travelled shorter path lengths than novices to the exact location of the hidden platform.
Mental rotation ability correlated with overall maze performance only when no cues
were visible, and only novices’ scores correlated with path length in this condition.
video games
expertise
STEM education
virtual Morris water
maze
spatial learning
mental rotation
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These studies showed that the VMWM is a useful paradigm in examining how past
video game experience influences human spatial cognition.
1. Introduction
In 2013, the video game industry contributed CAN $2.3 billion to Canada’s
GDP and 58 per cent of Canadians were reported as ‘gamers’ (Entertainment
Software Association of Canada (ESAC) 2013: 5–15). Gartner estimated that
the global video game market would total US $93 billion in 2013 (Gartner
2013). These statistics are an indication that video game playing has become
prevalent worldwide, raising questions about its effect on cognition, particularly on factors such as spatial abilities, which are thought to be associated
with the educational (and therefore vocational) development of adolescents.
Given the large variety of psychometric tests, there has been little agreement
among researchers on a precise definition of spatial abilities (see Voyer et al.
1995: 251). In this article, we broadly defined spatial ability as the capacity to
formulate, retain and manipulate a mental representation of non-linguistic visual
images through space (Voyer et al. 1995: 250; Wai et al. 2009: 817). One of the
most investigated spatial abilities is mental rotation, which refers to the ability to
visualize and mentally rotate quickly and accurately abstract three-dimensional
figures (Voyer et al. 1995: 250). It is theorized that we rely on this ability to solve
mathematical tasks (De Lisi and Wolford 2002: 273). Delgado and Prieto (2004:
29–30), for instance, found that mental rotation was a predictor for geometry and
word problem solving. Similarly, Geary et al. (2000: 349) found a relationship
between scores on mental rotation tests and arithmetical reasoning. It stands
to reason that if improvements in spatial abilities lead to direct improvements
in one’s educational and vocational success, then the value of investigating the
relationship between video games and spatial abilities is evident.
As early as 1957, Super and Bachrach conducted a review of the research
on the characteristics of individuals who pursue careers in the fields of Science,
Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM). They identified various
psychological, cultural and socio-economic factors characteristic of those who
pursue vocations in STEM fields. As they stated, this topic is important for the
following reasons:
1. the adequate ‘identification, selection, and encouragement of potential scientists, and engineers’;
2. the development of ‘research and theory in vocational development
and occupational choice’;
3. theory testing of ‘individual differences and of personality theory’ as
gleaned from work and occupation data.
(Super and Bachrach 1957)
In their report, Super and Bachrach (1957: 12) called for research into ‘personal
and environmental’ factors that contribute to vocational development in STEM
fields. One such factor is the ability to mentally visualize and process spatial
information. As Wai et al. (2009: 817) point out, however, in the five decades
since Super and Bachrach’s (1957) report, ‘relatively little implementation of
spatial ability is found for selection, curriculum, and instruction in educational settings’, Methods of selection and training mainly rely on verbal and
numerical abilities. Thus, to the extent that spatial abilities are predictive of
educational and vocational success in STEM fields, developing the appropriate
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The role of video game experience in spatial …
assessment tools and educational interventions would be useful and beneficial
(Humphreys et al. 1993: 258).
Wai et al. (2009) investigated the extent to which studies consistently
predicted a longitudinal relationship between spatial ability and educationvocational expertise and development in STEM domains. In one such study,
563 intellectually talented high school students were tracked over a 20-year
period and biographical, educational, and occupational information were
collected periodically (Shea et al. 2001). The results of this endeavour revealed
that higher spatial ability predicted the likelihood of obtaining a degree and
following a vocation in STEM fields. A similar pattern was revealed by the
work of Webb et al. (2007), in which 1,060 intellectually talented high school
students were analysed. The results showed that adolescents with high spatial
ability scores were likely to pursue careers in STEM domains. These studies
span a period starting from the early 1970s to the present. In a third project,
conducted prior to the work of Shea et al. (2001) and Webb et al. (2007), four
cohorts totalling 400,000 participants were followed for over a decade starting
in early 1960 (Wise et al. 1979). Wai et al. (2009) analysed the studies cited,
including those reported in Super and Bachrach’s (1957) report, to determine if the separate findings on spatial abilities and STEM career development mirrored one another. Together, the studies spanned a period of over
50 years. The results of their analysis yielded the following key findings:
• A
dolescents with high levels of spatial abilities tended to choose
­educational and occupational fields in STEM domains.
• The relationship between spatial ability and professional development in STEM careers was strong not only for intellectually talented
individuals but also the general population of adolescents.
• Restrictive selection criteria, which do not include spatial abilities,
tend to miss talented individuals.
(Wai et al. 2009: 827)
Together, the evidence shows a close relationship between spatial abilities
and educational-vocational development. Yet little effort has been expended
in developing the tools necessary to identify, select, and train individuals in
these important abilities. In the present studies, we aimed to determine the
extent to which video games influence mental rotation abilities and to assess
ways of testing and training spatial learning and memory using virtual environments, as well as to suggest possible design considerations for training
spatial abilities through video game play.
Video games and spatial abilities
A number of studies have demonstrated that video game playing is associated with improvements on a host of perceptual and cognitive processes
(e.g. Green and Bavelier 2003; Feng et al. 2007; Boot et al. 2008). Green and
Bavelier (2003: 535) found that video game players exhibited ‘enhanced attentional capacity’, and ‘enhanced allocation of spatial attention’. Additionally,
they showed that visuo-attentional capacity was also enhanced after training inexperienced participants with an action video game (Green and Bavelier
2007: 6). Feng et al. (2007: 852) found that playing 10 hours of action games
improved scores in mental rotation. Similar results were obtained by Boot et al.
(2008), who in addition to improvements in mental rotation ability also found
that playing video games improved other abilities such as executive control,
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1. The attentional blink
task is a measure
of the breadth of visual
attention (Green and
Bavelier 2003: 535).
2. The flanker effect is
measure of attentional
capacity (Green and
Bavelier 2003: 534).
3. Multiple object
tracking is used to
measure attentional
resources by testing
the ability of the
participant to track
multiple moving
targets amidst a
field of distracting
moving items (Green
et al. 2007: 3).
4. The Ravens Advanced
Matrices test is a
measure of general
intelligence in which a
participant is asked to
complete the missing
pieces to complete
a pattern (Boot
et al. 2008: 391).
24
planning, visual attention and spatial processing. Although further work is
required to understand the underlying factors and mechanisms that lead to
such improvements, the accumulated evidence supports the notion that playing video games can lead to changes in perceptual and cognitive abilities.
In the two studies reported in this article, we examined the extent to which
experts and novices differed in the mental rotation task. We hypothesized that
video game experts would score significantly higher than novices on mental rotation tests. We also tested video game experts’ and novices’ spatial learning
and memory in a virtual Morris Water Maze (VMWM), which is described in
the following section. Given that past research has shown that mental rotation is necessary to visualize and manipulate the geometrical properties of the
environment during navigation (Dabbs et al. 1998: 90), we examined whether
scores in mental rotation were associated with performance in the VMWM
task. We hypothesized that higher scores in the mental rotation test would be
correlated with better performance in the VMWM task.
Spatial learning in a VMWM
Although past research has found a relationship between video game playing and spatial processes, researchers have relied on psychophysical tests like
the attentional blink task,1 flanker effect task,2 multiple object tracking3 and
ravens matrices.4 These tasks are relatively simple because it is necessary to
isolate and control the variables under investigation, but they lack the graphical complexity (and realism) that players encounter in modern video game
environments. We sought to test participants in a more authentic setting that
could still be experimentally controlled.
Investigating spatial learning and memory in humans is difficult because
natural real-world settings can be experimentally unwieldy. In animal models
of spatial learning and memory, researchers have relied on a number of methods that allow them to investigate spatial skills and abilities in a controlled
but naturalistic setting. One such method is the Morris Water Maze (Morris
1984: 48; ‘MWM’). The MWM consists of a circular pool with a platform just
beneath the water surface as shown in Figure 1.
A subject (typically a rodent) is placed on the water and allowed to learn
the location of the platform to escape the water. The subject’s ability to learn
the location of the platform is a measure of the strength and accuracy of spatial
learning and working memory (D’Hooge and De Deyn 2001: 65). Metrics
like search latencies, path lengths and quadrant dwell times are measured to
assess spatial performance across various trial types.
As mentioned, the MWM paradigm has been mainly used to investigate
non-human animal models of spatial learning. The use of this experimental
technique with humans poses technical and logistical challenges. Therefore, to
gain precise experimental control, virtual versions of the Morris Water Maze
(VMWM) have been developed (Hamilton et al. 2002: 160). It is acknowledged
that the lack of physical movement is a limitation when investigating navigation performance in virtual environments. Yet the dynamic graphical realism
of virtual environments resembles some of the characteristics of real-world
environments, including their spatial properties. Thus, it is assumed that the
same spatial skills, abilities and strategies that we use in real-world navigation
are employed during virtual environment navigation, and this makes VMWMs
ideal for investigating spatial cognition in humans.
We developed a VMWM within the Second Life (Linden Lab 2003) virtual
world to assess spatial learning and memory. Much of the research conducted
The role of video game experience in spatial …
(Adapted from the Wikipedia Commons)
Figure 1: Schematic of a Morris Water Maze.
in Second Life deals with the social elements of the platform, but little research
has been devoted to utilizing it as an experimental tool to investigate individual mental processes. Testing the utility of Second Life as an experimental platform, we focused our analysis on the length of the path travelled between the
starting point and the platform by individual participants. In the spatial cognition literature concerning the VMWM, path length is considered an indication
of search efficiency (Kallai et al. 2005: 1889). We hypothesized that video game
experts would travel shorter path lengths than novices when searching for the target
in the hidden platform trials. On the probe trial, the platform was inactive for
twenty seconds, so longer path lengths on the platform quadrant during that
twenty-second interval were an indication that the participant had learned the
general location of the platform. Therefore, we hypothesized that video game
experts would travel longer path lengths in the pool quadrant where the hidden
target was located.
Past research has also shown that the presence of visible prominent nongeometric distal5 cues affect human performance in the maze. For instance,
Sandstrom et al. (1998) found that when distal cues were manipulated,
search performance in a VMWM was disrupted in females but not males.
Females seemed to be more dependent than males on a navigation strategy
based on non-geometric distal cues. The exact reasons (e.g., evolutionary,
biological and environmental) for these findings are unknown. We focused
our research on the experiential factors (i.e., video game playing) associated
with spatial learning, and as the effect of proximal cues on human navigation
performance has not, as far we are aware, been systematically investigated
with the VMWM paradigm, we conducted two separate experiments. In one
experiment, the VMWM contained no proximal cues and we theorized that
participants would rely mainly on distal (geometrical) cues to orient themselves. Therefore, we refer to this experiment as the Distal Cues experiment.
In a second experiment, proximal cues were visible along the pool’s wall,
and we refer to this experiment as the Proximal Cues experiment. Details of
the design of the VMWM are described in the following sections.
5. Distal cues refers to
information located
in the outer periphery
of the environment.
Proximal cues are those
elements that are in
the zone proximate to
the centre of the area.
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2. Methods
Participants
We tested 82 participants from Simon Fraser University’s School of Interactive
Arts and Technology in Surrey, British Columbia. A total of 45 participants
(sixteen males and 29 females) completed the Distal Cues experiment;
22 participants were video game novices and 23 were experts. The average age
was 21 years for experts and 22 years for novices.
A total of 37 participants (sixteen male and 21 females) completed the
Proximal Cues experiment. Eighteen participants were video game novices
and nineteen were experts. The average age was 22 years for experts and
22 years for novices.
For their participation, the participants received a $25 honorarium. Each
experimental session lasted approximately one hour.
Apparatus
Participants viewed the stimulus on a 21.5” monitor at a distance of
approximately 25 inches.
The VMWM consisted of a circular pool with a 40 virtual-metre diameter,
housed within a rectangular room measuring 60×60×17.5m. The pool was
filled with virtual water to a depth of 20m and was bounded by a 1.5m high
wall. Figure 2 shows an overhead screenshot of the main testing area.
One version of the maze contained five proximal cues that were visible
along the pool wall in an asymmetrical layout (Figure 3). The other version did
not contain any proximal cues.
We placed a circular pink-coloured platform on the water that was 1.5m in
diameter and located at a distance of 7m from the pool wall. Figure 4 shows
the platform when proximal cues were visible (left) and hidden (right).
A practice area was created with an empty pool located inside a rectangular room similar in design and dimensions to the main testing area. We
created a ‘control deck’ outside the pool room that allowed the experimenter
to control the maze settings and allowed the participants to access different
areas of the maze using ‘buttons’ on the wall (Figure 5).
Figure 2: A Virtual Morris Water Maze (VMWM) in Second Life.
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The role of video game experience in spatial …
Figure 3: Proximal cues in the VMWM.
Figure 4: A visible platform in the VMWM.
Figure 5: Control Deck in the VMWM.
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While navigating in the pool, participants were able to see a small rat
avatar, the surface of the water, the pool wall, the room walls and small
portions of the sky. To avoid effects of ambient lighting, the sun was set to
noon for all sessions.
Search task
At the start of each session, the experimenter read the study overview to
participants and provided them with a consent form. The experimenter
answered general questions and fully debriefed participants at the end of the
experiment. He explained that the task was to play a game to find the location of a platform in the pool. Participants were to use the arrow keys to navigate but were instructed not to use the ‘back’ arrow, as in traditional MWM
experiments animal subjects do not swim backwards. Testing proceeded
with a series of trials adapted from Mueller et al. (2008: 212): practice, visible
­platform, hidden platform and probe (Table 1).
After practice, the participants ‘teleported’ into one of the four randomly
determined starting locations in the visible platform trials. Once a participant
had found the platform, the avatar was held in place and a voice announced,
‘Congratulations. You have found the platform and escaped from the water’.
Participants could look around for twenty seconds until a black screen
Type
Number of trials Description
Practice
1
Visible platform
4
Hidden platform
10
Probe
1
The participants navigated
an empty pool to familiarize
themselves with the controls and
the environment.
The participants teleported into one
of the four randomly determined
starting locations (NSEW) and
searched for the platform visible
in one of the four quadrants. On
subsequent trials, the starting
location was random and the
platform changed location around
all four quadrants
Participants began testing in a
pseudo-randomly determined starting
location and had three minutes to
find the hidden platform, which was
always located in the SE quadrant.
If they failed to find it, the platform
appeared and a voice said, ‘Time has
expired. Please swim to the platform’
On the last trial, the platform was
in the same location as in the
previous trial but it was inactive for
twenty seconds
Table 1: Description of search trials in the VMWM.
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The role of video game experience in spatial …
appeared, and they were asked to click on this black screen to teleport to a
new starting location and begin the next trial. At the end of the fourth visible
platform trial, the participants teleported back to the control deck and after
receiving further instructions, they teleported back into the pool to start the
hidden platform trials. In the hidden platform trials, the participants could look
around for as long as they wished once they found the platform. When they
were ready to start the next trial, the participants pressed enter and a black
screen appeared. They clicked on this black screen to teleport to a new starting location and initiate the next trial. In the last hidden trial, referred to as the
‘probe’ trial, the platform could not be activated for twenty seconds, even if
the participant stepped on it. In traditional animal experiments, a well-trained
subject spends most of their search time in the quadrant where the platform
is located, and therefore performance in this trial is a measure of the strength
and accuracy of spatial learning. In the present study, we measured the path
length accrued in the platform quadrant during the twenty-second interval.
Tests and questionnaires
After the VMWM navigation task, participants completed Peters et al.’s
(1995) redrawn Vandenberg and Kuse (1978) mental rotation test. In
this 24-item test, participants are presented with a target figure and four
stimulus figures. Two of the stimulus figures are rotated versions of the
target figure. Participants need to find both figures and mark them with
an X. Once participants completed the mental rotation test, they filled out a
previously validated video game experience survey, kindly provided to us by
Walter R. Boot from Florida State University (personal correspondence).
Measures
We recorded the x and y positions of the avatar during navigation and calculated the path length travelled between the starting location and the platform
on the visible platform and hidden platform trials. In the probe trial, we calculated the length of the path travelled on the platform quadrant within the
twenty-second interval in which the platform had been deactivated. To measure expertise, participants completed a survey and stated the number of hours
per week spent in the past year playing video games, console, arcade, online
and smartphone/handheld video games. To establish levels of expertise, participants whose total game-playing times were less than the sample’s median
were considered novices and participants whose total game-playing times
were equal to or higher than the sample’s median were considered experts.
Data analysis
To examine the differences in path length between video game experts and
novices in the hidden platform trials, we used a two-way mixed ANOVA with
trial as the within-subject variable and expertise as the between-subject variable. Separate ANOVAs were used for the visible platform and hidden platform trials. Effect sizes are reported with Pearson’s correlation coefficient, r.
Differences in scores of mental rotation and in dwell time during the probe
trials were tested with independent samples t-tests or non-parametric equivalent where assumptions of normality were violated. Correlations between
spatial abilities and path lengths were tested with Pearson’s r or Kendall’s τ
non-parametric correlations.
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As per Newhouse et al. (2007), the path length data represents the distance
travelled to the platform, including distance travelled after the time expired.
Note that the data from the first hidden trial was excluded from the analysis as
participants had not yet seen the location of the platform and thus their performance was based on chance. However, the first trial is included in the graphs.
3. Results
Distal Cues experiment vs Proximal Cues experiment
We analysed overall performance in both experiments. In the visible platform
trials (Figure 6), the Distal Cues experimental group (M=18.8, SD=3.85) travelled a shorter path length than the Proximal Cues group (M=19.9, SD=3.56),
but, as expected, this difference was statistically non-significant F(1, 80)=1.68,
p>0.05, r=0.14.
Figure 7 shows the average path length travelled across the ten hidden
platform trials in the Distal Cues (green) and Proximal Cues (blue) studies.
Participants in the Distal Cues experiment (M=163.0, SD=95.70) travelled a longer path length than participants in the Proximal Cues experiment
(M=43.0, SD=20.58). The difference was statistically significant F(1, 80)=56.13,
p<0.01, r=0.64.
In the probe trial, participants in the Distal Cues experiment (Mdn=16.63,
SD=8.50) accrued a shorter path length on the platform quadrant than
participants in the Proximal Cues experiment (Mdn=31.48, SD=8.50), and this
difference was statistically significant U=263.00, z=−5.31, p=0.000, r=−0.59.
Figure 6: Average path length on the four visible trials in the Distal Cues and
Proximal Cues experiments.
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The role of video game experience in spatial …
Figure 7: The average path length across the ten hidden platform trials.
Distal Cues experiment
On the visible trials of the Distal Cues experiment, there was no significant
main effect of expertise F(1, 43)=<1, p>0.05, r=0.12; no significant main effect
of trial F(3, 129)=2.32, p>0.05; and no significant interaction effect of trial and
expertise F(3, 129)=2.06, p>0.05.
Figure 8 illustrates video game novices’ and experts’ mean path length
travelled across the ten hidden platform trials. The results showed that experts
(M=151.2, SD=88.98) did not significantly differ on average path length from
novices (M=175.8, SD=102.81) F(1, 43)=<1, p>0.05, r=0.13. There was a
significant main effect of trial F(5.49, 236.21)=2.88, p=0.01; and no significant
­interaction effect of trial and expertise F(5.49, 236.21)<1, p>0.05.
In the probe trial, experts (M=20.1, SD=12.63) travelled a greater path
length than novices (M=11.57, SD=12.60) and the difference was statistically
significant t(43)=−2.26, p=0.01, r=0.33.
Proximal Cues experiment
In the Proximal Cues experiment, the analysis of the visible platform trials
yielded no significant main effect of video game expertise F(1, 35)=2.30, p>0.05,
r=0.25; no significant main effect of trial F(2.67, 93.33)=1.11, p>0.05; and no
significant interaction effect of expertise and trial F(2.67, 93.33)=1.98, p>0.05.
On the hidden platform trials (Figure 9), the results showed that experts
(M=35.8, SD=8.15) and novices (M=50.7, SD=26.57) differed significantly on
path length F(1, 35)=5.43, p<0.05, r=0.37. There was no significant main effect
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Figure 8: Average path length travelled by experts and novices on the ten hidden
platform trials of the Distal Cues experiment.
Figure 9: Average path length travelled by experts and novices on the ten hidden
trials of the Proximal Cues experiment.
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The role of video game experience in spatial …
of trial F(4.12, 144.34)=1.75, p>0.05; and no significant interaction effect of
expertise and trial F(4.12, 144.34)<1, 0.05.
In the probe trial, experts (M=31.1, SD=9.24) and novices (M=31.9,
SD=7.89) did not differ significantly in the path length travelled on the
platform quadrant t(35)=0.28, p>0.05, r=0.05.
Spatial abilities
Mental rotation in the Distal Cues experiment
The results showed that video game experts (M=12.9, SD=5.66) significantly differed from novices (M=9.4, SD=4.67) in scores of mental rotation
t(43)=−2.29, p=0.01, r=0.33.
Table 2 shows the results of the correlations between participants’ scores
on mental rotation and mean path length in the hidden platform trials.
As shown, the results of the correlation analysis only yielded a statistically significant negative correlation between overall mental rotation scores
and path length, τ=−0.18, p<0.05.
There was a positive correlation between quadrant path length in the
probe trial and mental rotation, τ=0.29, p<0.01. The correlation analysis results
(Table 3) yielded a positive correlation between novices’ quadrant path length
and mental rotation, r=0.42, p<0.05.
Mental rotation in the Proximal Cues experiment
We tested the differences in mental rotation between video game experts and
novices. In the Proximal Cues experiment, the difference between video game
novices (M=9.9, SD=5.31) and experts (M=13.8, SD=5.47) was significant
t(35)=−2.23, p<0.05, r=0.35.
As shown in Table 4, no significant correlations between mental rotation
and path length on the hidden platform trials were found.
In the probe trial, there was no statistically significant correlation between
quadrant path length and mental rotation, τ=0.03, p>0.05. We found no other
statistically significant correlations (Table 5).
Group
Kendall’s τ
Overall −0.181
Experts −0.16
Novices −0.21
p<0.05
[1]
Table 2: Correlation between mental rotation test scores and mean path length
in hidden platform trials of the Distal Cues experiment.
Group
Pearson’s r
Experts 0.23
Novices 0.42[1]
p<0.05
[1]
Table 3: Correlation between quadrant path length in the probe trial and mental
rotation in the Distal Cues experiment.
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Group
Kendall’s τ
Overall −0.07
Experts
0.01
Novices 0.05
Table 4: Correlation between mental rotation test scores and mean path length on
the hidden platform trials in the Proximal Cues experiment.
Group
Pearson’s τ
Experts −0.02
Novices 0.25
Table 5: Correlation between quadrant path length in the probe trial and mental
rotation in the Proximal Cues experiment.
4. Discussion
In the present studies, we aimed to examine relationships among video game
experience, spatial learning and spatial abilities. The results revealed a complex
relationship that was partly dependent on the environmental cues available in
the distal and proximal areas of the VMWM. As expected, participants did not
differ on performance when the platform was clearly visible, which indicates
that they understood the task, were motivated and able to complete it; and
were not adversely affected by the digital nature of the virtual environment
(Livingston and Skelton 2007: 24). Not surprisingly, the presence or absence of
cues in the visible platform trials did not affect performance, as participants in
both experiments travelled similar path lengths to the visible platform and the
differences between both sample populations were not statistically significant.
The presence of prominent (non-geometric) proximal cues facilitated learning the location of the platform on the hidden platform and probe trials. This
result suggests that participants in each experiment formed distinct representations of the environment based on the type of cues available as navigation aids.
This finding is in line with results obtained by Eichenbaum et al. (1990: 3535),
who found that prominent distal cues affected maze performance in rodents.
The significant improvement in search performance obtained by participants in
the present experiment when prominent cues were visible is further indication
that the relationship between spatial cognition and 3D virtual environments
depends in part on the specific graphical elements that make up the virtual environment. On a practical level, the findings provide more evidence that attempts
at using video games to formally assess and improve spatial abilities need to
take into account how these graphical elements ­interact with spatial cognition.
Video game experts travelled significantly shorter paths than novices in
the hidden platform trials when proximal cues were visible. Yet the differences became non-significant when we analysed the path length travelled
on the platform quadrant during the probe trial. This result shows that the
differences in spatial learning and memory between novices and experts
were essentially eliminated with the addition of proximal cues. Interestingly,
we obtained the opposite results in the Distal Cues experiment. That is, the
differences between experts and novices were non-significant in the hidden
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The role of video game experience in spatial …
platform trials but significant in the probe trial. It should be noted that, in
the hidden platform trials, we measured the participants’ ability to actually
find the platform, which requires a high level of spatial accuracy to step on
the target. In the probe trial, we measured the path length accrued on the
platform quadrant, which is a measure of spatial awareness. The finding that
experts had a longer path length than novices on the probe trial suggests that
A) experts had more confidence in their knowledge of the platform location
and therefore spent more time in the right quadrant than novices; B) experts
employed a navigational strategy that allowed them to cover more distance
in the platform quadrant than novices; or C) both A and B contributed to
experts’ higher performance as compared to novices. Combined, the findings
from the Proximal Cues and Distal Cues experiments are important because
they illustrate that different types of graphical elements contribute to spatial
learning and memory in different ways. As such, designers of games that
aim to improve spatial cognition should carefully consider how they employ
environmental cues.
While researchers have found that action video games improve mental
rotation (Feng et al. 2007; Boot et al. 2008), the precise factors that mediate
this improvement have not been identified. We hypothesized that video game
experts would perform better than novices in test of mental rotation abilities,
and we found support for this hypothesis in both studies. When we analysed
the correlation between mental rotation and maze performance, we found an
overall significant correlation between mental rotation and path length in the
hidden platform trials of the Distal Cues experiment but not in the Proximal
Cues experiment. Given that participants did not have proximal cues available
as navigation aids, it is likely that they relied on the geometrical layout of the
maze environment. This finding provides tentative evidence for the notion that
mental rotation is a spatial ability associated with the processing of allocentric
(i.e. distal and geometric) information (e.g. Dabbs et al. 1998) but not proximal
cues (e.g., local landmarks). That is, specific elements of the environment’s
design have different effects on spatial learning and associated abilities. So,
if we are to design digital interventions to assess and improve the skills and
abilities associated with STEM fields, then a targeted approach is necessary.
Such a targeted approach would need to take into account how specific
elements of the game’s environment are affecting spatial perception and cognition. This can be rather difficult because even relatively ‘simple’ video games
are visually complex and dynamic. For instance, one of the mini-games found
in Nintendo’s Big Brain Academy: Wii Degree (Nintendo 2007) for the Wii video
game system was modelled after the mental rotation task in which a target 3D
figure is compared with four stimulus figures. The four stimulus figures are
similar to the target figure but only one of them is identical to it. The stimulus figures appear to be rotated about the vertical axis in relation to the target
figure, and the task is to identify which of the four stimulus figures is the same
as the target figure. The idea behind the Nintendo mini-game is that playing it repeatedly will lead to improvements in the cognitive abilities associated with analysing and solving spatial visualization problems. There are some
clear differences, however, between the Nintendo video game and the mental
rotation test upon which it is based. Moreover, in the Nintendo mini-game,
the designers added colour to the geometrical blocks, making them somewhat
distinct from one another and giving them more landmark-like ­qualities. In
traditional mental rotation tests, the figures are simply black and white sketches
because the aim is to test the participant’s ability to mentally manipulate only
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Suzanne de Castell | Hector Larios …
geometrical information, and the addition of extraneous information such as
colour may alter how the figures are perceptually and cognitively processed.
Moreover, in the Nintendo game the stimulus figures continually rotate about
the vertical axis. Yet, in the traditional paper-based mental rotation test, the
figures are static, and it is up to the participant to rotate them in their own
mind. On the surface, these differences between the mental ­rotation test and
the Nintendo mini-game may seem trivial, but they may have a large effect
in the skills and abilities required to complete the tasks. As the results of the
present experiment showed, the addition of a few prominent proximal cues
resulted in significantly different performance in the two experiments. As
well, the significant correlation between mental rotation and path length in
the Distal Cues experiment suggests that different cognitive strategies were
employed on each condition. More graphically advanced games like World of
Warcraft (2004) or Medal of Honor (2010), which require players to traverse
spatially and visually complex 3D environments, may indeed improve spatial
cognition. However, if we are to use these types of games in formal assessment and training of cognitive abilities, then it is important to understand how
specific elements of the environment precisely interact with perceptual and
cognitive abilities, and to keep in mind that commercial and educational aims
may not align. Design elements that compensate for weak spatial abilities and
thereby support the widest range of players make good business sense, for
example, whereas designs that require and selectively support the identification and remediation of weak spatial abilities make good educational sense.
While there was a general correlation between mental rotation and maze
performance in the Distal Cues experiment, we found a statistically significant
correlation only between video game novices’ mental rotation scores and maze
performance in the probe trial of the Distal Cues study. This result suggests
that superior mental rotation abilities are associated with the ability to navigate an environment in which no proximal cues are available as navigation
aids. If video games do indeed improve mental rotation, then learners with
low spatial ability may find it particularly beneficial to engage in game playing. In fact, results obtained by Feng et al., (2007) showed that females, who
usually score lower in tests of mental rotation (see Voyer et al. 1995) enjoyed
more benefits from video game training than males. We plan to investigate
this topic further in future studies.
It is important to take into consideration several experimental limitations. First, the participants were recruited at the School of Interactive Arts
and Technology and their high level of exposure to computer technology and
STEM fields may minimize any differences that may exist as a consequence
of past video game experience. Second, our assessment of video game expertise is based on the amount of time playing video games in the year prior to
the study. In informal interviews, some students mentioned that they spent
more time playing video games when they were younger. Thus, it is possible that a participant who engaged in high levels of video game playing in
their primary and secondary school years decreased such activities once they
entered university, by which time it may be that spatial abilities had already
been improved by video game playing. The definition of video game expertise
itself did not take into account the type of video games that the participants
played. Notwithstanding, as the results showed, different types of environment elicited differences in performance. Given the variety of video game
environments, it is likely that their effect on spatial cognition is not all the
same, and therefore our operational definition of expertise is limiting in this
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The role of video game experience in spatial …
regard. Third, the path length variable in the hidden platform trials constituted the distance travelled between the starting location and the platform,
regardless of whether or not the trial time had expired. Completing the task
was challenging in the Distal Cues experiment, and on some trials, several
participants failed to find the platform within three minutes. This means that
the data in the Distal Cues experiment contained more path length segments
accrued after the time ran out than in the Proximal Cues experiment. In future
analysis, we recommend that these path data be limited to the distance travelled only within the time limit regardless of whether the participant finds the
platform or not, or that distance travelled after the time expired be analysed
differently than distance travelled within the time limit, since it is probably
important to know whether the distance travelled resulted in success or not,
even if more time was taken to get there. Lastly, participants represent a
cohort of young students from a Canadian university and therefore we must
be careful in generalizing to a wider population.
The results of these studies indicate that the effects of the environmental
cues available for navigation were partly dependent on the level of video game
experience. Perhaps other features of the environment could have influenced
performance as well. Although it is beyond the scope of this article to delve
deeply into the subject, if we are to understand how precisely environmental cues affect different aspects of spatial cognition, then further investigation
could help clarify how environmental features such as light, distal landmarks,
colour, texture and so forth affect the efficacy and efficiency of spatial learning. Studies more nuanced in these respects could help us to more precisely
isolate specific features that lead to improvements in the skills and abilities
associated with success in STEM education.
As discussed in the introduction, spatial abilities have been associated
with the likelihood of obtaining a higher degree in a STEM fields (Wai et
al. 2009). Yet as Voyer et al. (1995) point out, there are a large number of
tests that measure a wide array of spatial processes. While the VMWM tests
spatial learning and memory, we do not know if performance in the VMWM
is directly associated with educational–vocational development in a STEM
field. Future studies could examine whether this is the case and thus show the
utility of using virtual environments such as video games and the VMWM for
selection and training.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the following people for playing an important
role in this project.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of the Air Force Research
Laboratory contract #FA8650-10-C-7009 who funded the initial research and
development work on the Virtual Morris Water Maze, Dr. Walter R. Boot for
providing the validated video game expertise questionnaire, and the GRANDNCE Research Network and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council of Canada, who funded this study. We further thank Alissa Antle for
facilitating completion of this study and Randa Aljohani for assisting with the
literature review.
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Suggested citation
de Castell, S., Larios, H., Jenson, J. and Smith, D. H. (2015), ‘The role of video
game experience in spatial learning and memory’, Journal of Gaming &
Virtual Worlds 7: 1, pp. 21–40, doi: 10.1386/jgvw.7.1.21_1
Contributor details
Suzanne de Castell is Professor and Dean at the University of Ontario Institute
Of Technology. Her topics of research include technology, educational game
theory, design, and development.
39
Suzanne de Castell | Hector Larios …
Contact: Faculty of Education, University of Ontario Institute of Technology,
11 Simcoe St. N., Oshawa, Ontario, Canada L1H 7L7.
E-mail: [email protected]
Hector Larios is a researcher in the School of Interactive Arts and Technology.
His area of research is spatial cognition and 3D virtual worlds.
Contact: School of Interactive Arts + Technology, 250-13450 102 Avenue,
Surrey, Canada, BC V3T 0A3.
E-mail: [email protected]
Jennifer Jenson is Professor of Pedagogy and Technology in the Faculty of
Education at York University. Her research interests include education,
gender, gameplay and technology policy.
Contact: York University, 4700 Keel St., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3J1P3.
E-mail: [email protected]
David Harris Smith is Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication
Studies and Multimedia at McMaster University and Director of Research for
the macGRID Simulation Research Network. His research includes multidisciplinary practices in online virtual worlds, augmented reality and new media
interaction.
Contact: McMaster University, 1280 Main St W, Hamilton, Canada,
ON L8S 4L8.
E-mail: [email protected]
Suzanne de Castell, Hector Larios, Jennifer Jenson and David Harris Smith
have asserted their right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988,
to be identified as the authors of this work in the format that was submitted
to Intellect Ltd.
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