เอกสารประกอบการสอน
GS 3302 ทฤษฎีการบริหารการศึกษา
Theory of Educational Administration
รศ. ดร. วิโรจน์ สารรัตนะ
ดร. พระมหาสาคร ภักดีนอก
ดร. พระมหาสมัย ผาสุ โก
หลักสู ตรศึกษาศาสตรดุษฎีบัณฑิตสาขาวิชาการบริหารการศึกษา
คณะศึกษาศาสตร์ มหาวิทยาลัยมหามกุฎราชวิทยาลัย วิทยาเขตอีสาน
ภาคเรียนที่ 1 ปี การศึกษา 2556
เอกสารประกอบการสอนรายวิชาทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษา
หน้ า 1
คาอธิบายรายวิชา
นิ ย าม ค ว า ม เห มื อ น แ ล ะ ค ว า ม แ ต ก ต่ า ง แ ล ะ ห น้ าที่ ข อ ง ห ลั ก ก า ร แ น ว คิ ด แ ล ะ ท ฤ ษ ฎี
ทั ศ น ะใน ท ฤษ ฎี การบ ริ ห ารจั ด การ ท ฤษ ฎี ก ารบ ริ ห ารการศึ กษ า แ ละท ฤษ ฎี ภาวะผู ้ น าท างการศึ กษ า
ผ ล ก า ร วิ จั ย แ ล ะ ก ร ณี ศึ ก ษ า ก า ร ใ ช้ ท ฤ ษ ฎี ก า ร บ ริ ห า ร ก า ร ศึ ก ษ า ที่ ป ร ะ ส บ ผ ล ส า เร็ จ
สัมมนาข้อเสนอทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษาไทยในศตวรรษที่ 21
Definition, the similarity and difference, and functions of principle, concept, and theory. Viewpoints
of management theory, educational administration theory, and educational leadership theory. Research
findings and case study of successful application of theory of educational administration. Seminar in proposed
theories of Thai educational administration and leadership in the 21 century.
วัตถุประสงค์
 เพื่อพัฒนาทักษะเชิ งมโนทัศน์ให้มองเห็นภาพโดยรวมของทฤษฎีทางการบริ หารการศึกษาที่ เชื่อมโยงกับทฤษ
ฎีการจัดการ (management) ทฤษฎีภาวะผูน้ าทางการศึกษา (educational leadership) และอื่นๆ
 เชื่ อ มโยงกั บ เนื้ อหาในรายวิ ช าพื้ น ฐานทางการบริ หารการศึ ก ษา (Fundamentals in Educational Administration)
ที่เน้นความรู ้ความเข้าใจในเนื้อหารายละเอียดของหลักการ แนวคิด และทฤษฎีที่สาคัญๆ
 เพื่อการศึกษาต่อยอด เพื่อการปฏิบตั ิ หรื อเพื่อการวิจยั ในอนาคต
แนวคิด
การศึ กษาในรายวิชานี้ เน้น ภาพโดยรวมของทฤษฎี ท างการบริ หารการศึ กษาที่ เชื่ อมโยงกับทฤษฎี การจัดการ
(management) ท ฤ ษ ฎี ภ า ว ะ ผู ้ น า ท า ง ก า ร ศึ ก ษ า (educational leadership) แ ล ะ อื่ น ๆ
และเชื่ อ มโยงกับ เนื้ อหาในรายวิ ช าพื้ น ฐานทางการบริ ห ารการศึ ก ษา (Fundamentals in Educational Administration)
ที่เน้นความรู ้ความเข้าใจในเนื้อหารายละเอียดของหลักการ แนวคิด และทฤษฎีที่สาคัญๆ
ข้ อ มู ล ส า ห รั บ ก า ร ศึ ก ษ า ม า จ า ก เ ว็ บ ไ ซ ด์ ห ล า ก ห ล า ย แ ห ล่ ง
ซึ่งสอดคล้องกับแนวคิดการจัดการศึกษาในสังคมความรู ้และการศึกษาในศตวรรษที่ 21 ที่นกั วิชาการให้ทศั นะไว้วา่ เป็ น ITbased learning อั น เ นื่ อ ง จ า ก ศั ก ย ภ า พ ข อ ง IT ที่ มี ม า ก ม า ย แ ล ะ ห ล า ก ห ล า ย
ที่ จ ะมาทดแทนข้ อ จ ากั ด การเรี ยนรู ้ ที่ ยึ ด ผู ้ส อนและยึ ด ต าราเป็ นหลั ก เช่ น ในอดี ต (teacher / text -based learning)
เพราะสามารถจะ link ข้อ มู ลจากแหล่ งหนึ่ งไปยังอี ก แหล่ งหนึ่ งได้อ ย่างรวดเร็ ว เสมื อ นมี ก องต ารามากมายอยู่ร อบๆ
ตัวผูเ้ รี ยน ในขณะเดี ยวกัน จะมีประโยชน์ต่อการพัฒนาทักษะด้าน IT ให้กบั นักศึ กษา เน้นการเป็ น active learner ไม่เป็ น
passive learner เช่ น ใน อดี ต ให้ ร่ วมกั น ศึ ก ษ า ห าข้ อ สรุ ป ใน แต่ ล ะเรื่ อง แต่ ล ะป ระเด็ น ที่ เป็ น concept ส าคั ญ
ไม่เจาะลงรายละเอียดหรื อท่องจา ทั้งผูส้ อนและนักศึ กษา ต่างเป็ นแหล่งความรู ้เพื่อการเรี ยนรู ้ร่วมกัน (All are sources of
knowledge for shared learning)
ในอนาคต หากนักศึกษาสนใจเรื่ องไหน ประเด็นไหน ทั้งเพื่อการศึกษาต่อยอด เพื่อการปฏิ บตั ิ หรื อเพื่อการวิจยั
ก็ ส า ม า ร ถ ย้ อ น ก ลั บ ม า ศึ ก ษ า เจ า ะ ลึ ก ใ น เรื่ อ ง นั้ น ห รื อ ป ร ะ เด็ น นั้ น ไ ด้ ส า ห รั บ ข้ อ มู ล ใ น ไ ฟ ล์ นี้
อาจารย์ผสู ้ อนและนักศึกษาสามารถช่วยกันปรับใหม่ให้เหมาะสม โดยอาจตัดออกหรื ออาจเพิ่มเข้ามาใหม่ ได้
เอกสารประกอบการสอนรายวิชาทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษา
หน้ า 2
แผนการสอน
สัปดาห์
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
เนื้ อหารายวิชา
ชี้แจง ทาความเข้าใจ และตกลงในเงื่อนไขกติกาการเรี ยนการสอน
รวมทั้งมอบหมายงาน
What and functions of Concepts, Principles, theory
What is the difference between Management and
Administration?
Management
Management
Management
Educational Administration
สอบกลางภาค
Educational Administration
Educational Administration
Educational Administration
Leadership
Educational Leadership
Educational Leadership
สรุ ปภาพรวม
ขอบข่ายของทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษามีอะไรบ้าง ?
ในแต่ละกรอบขอบข่ายนั้นมีสาระสาคัญอะไร อะไรและอย่างไร ?
หากจะศึกษาต่อยอดในรายละเอียด หากจะนาไปปฏิบตั ิ
หรื อหากจะนาไปศึกษาวิจยั ทาอย่างไร ?
สอบปลายภาค
กิจกรรมการเรี ยนการสอน
มอบหมายงานเพื่อศึกษาด้วยตนเองและค้นคว้าข้อมูลเ
พิ่มเติม
แต่ละครั้ง -- นาเสนอผลการศึกษา อภิปรายผล
และสรุ ปผลการศึกษาร่ วมกัน
 มอบหมายงานเพื่อศึกษาด้วยตนเอง ศึกษากลุ่ม
และค้นคว้าข้อมูลเพิ่มเติมในหัวข้อที่จะศึกษาครั้ง
ถัดไป
แต่ละครั้ง -- นาเสนอผลการศึกษา อภิปรายผล
และสรุ ปผลการศึกษาร่ วมกัน
 มอบหมายงานเพื่อศึกษาด้วยตนเอง ศึกษากลุ่ม
และค้นคว้าข้อมูลเพิ่มเติมในหัวข้อที่จะศึกษาครั้ง
ถัดไป
สัมมนาชั้นเรี ยน
การวัดผล





ความรับผิดชอบและการเข้าชั้นเรี ยน
คุณภาพของผลงานการศึกษาด้วยตนเองและข้อมูลที่คน้ คว้าเพิ่มเติม
คุณภาพการนาเสนอผลการศึกษา
พฤติกรรมการมีส่วนร่ วมในชั้นเรี ยน
ผลการทดสอบกลางเทอมและปลายเทอม
รวม
เอกสารประกอบการสอนรายวิชาทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษา
20 คะแนน
20 คะแนน
20 คะแนน
20 คะแนน
20 คะแนน
100 คะแนน
หน้ า 3
การประเมินผล
ช่วงคะแนน
80 - 100
75 – 79
70 - 74
65 - 69
60 - 64
55 - 59
50 - 54
- 49
เกรด
A
B+
B
C+
C
D+
D
F
เอกสารอ้ างอิง
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เอกสารประกอบการสอนรายวิชาทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษา
หน้ า 4
Howell, J.P. and Costley, D.L. (2001). Understanding behaviors for effective leadership. New Jersey:
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เอกสารประกอบการสอนรายวิชาทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษา
หน้ า 5
ศึกษาเพื่อให้ เข้ าใจว่า theory
คืออะไร มีประโยชน์อะไร
Zepeda, S.J., Mayers, R.S., and Benson, B.N. (2003). The call to teacher leadership. San Francisco:
ต่างจาก
Jossey
– Principle
Bass. และ
THEORIES, PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPT ?
Concept อย่างไร
http://www.scribd.com/doc/52442490/Concept-Theory-and-Principles-management-andAdministration-in-TVE
Mohd Zulfadly Othman, 2011.
Educational administrators are professionals who have a code of ethics and are
licenses by state board of education. Thus, their behavior is guided by acceptable standard of
practice. Such in the case with educational administration is characterized by using a theory
to explain and predict phenomena in educational organization. Upon closer examination,
almost every action a school administration takes is based to some degree on a theory (Allan
and Fred,2004)
School administration would most likely flounder without theories to guide them in
making choices. Thus, theories provide a guiding framework for understanding, predicting
and controlling behavior in organizations. Theories also contribute to the advancement
of knowledge in the field..
Theory
In philosophy, theory (from ancient Greek theoria, θεωρία, meaning "a looking at
,viewing, beholding") refers to contemplation or speculation, as opposed to action. Theory is
especially often contrasted to "practice" (Greek praxis, πρᾶξις) a concept that in its original
Aristotelian context referred to actions done for their own sake, but can also refer to
"technical" actions instrumental to some other aim, such as the making of tools or houses.
"Theoria" is also a word still used in theological contexts.
Theories are analytical tools for understanding, explaining, and making predictions
about a given subject matter. There are theories in many and varied fields of study, including
the arts and sciences. A formal theory is syntactic in nature and is only meaningful when
given a semantic component by applying it to some content (i.e. facts and relationships of the
actual historical world as it is unfolding). Theories in various fields of study are expressed in
natural language, but are always constructed in such a way that their general form is identical
to a theory as it is expressed in the formal language of mathematical logic. Theories may be
expressed mathematically, symbolically, or in common language, but are generally expected
to follow principles of rational thought or logic. Theories are perspectives with which people
make sense of their world experiences (Stoner et. al., 1995)
Theory is a systematic grouping of interdependent concepts (mental images of
anything formed by generalization from particulars) and principles (are generalizations or
hypotheses that are tested for accuracy and appear to be true to reflect or explain reality) that
give a framework to, or tie together, a significant area of knowledge.
Functions of Theories
Scattered data are not information unless the observer has knowledge of the theory
that will explain relationships. Theory is “in its lowest form a classification, a set of
pigeonholes, a filing cabinet in which fact can accumulate. Nothing is more lost than a loose
fact” (Homans, 1958)
เอกสารประกอบการสอนรายวิชาทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษา
หน้ า 6
In the field of management, then, the role of theory is to provide a means
of classifying significant and pertinent management knowledge. For example, in the area of
designing an effective organization structure, there are several principles that are interrelated
and that have a predictive value for managers. The theory of management is grouped into the
five functions of management. In sum, there are basically three main reasons why we have to
study management theory. First, theories provide a stable focus for understanding what we
experience. A theory provides criteria for what is relevant. Second, theories enable us to
communicate efficiently and thus move into more and more complex relationships with other
people. Third, theories make it possible – indeed, challenge us – to keep learning about our
world.
Enable us to
communicate
efficiently
Provides criteria for
what is relevant
Basis for prediction
of future events
Functions of Theories
Characteristics of Theory
A body of descriptions of knowledge is usually only called a theory once it has a
firm empirical basis, i.e., it
 is consistent with pre-existing theory to the extent that the pre-existing theory
was experimentally verified, though it will often show pre-existing theory to be
wrong in an exact sense,
 is supported by many strands of evidence rather than a single foundation,
ensuring that it probably is a good approximation if not totally correct,
 makes predictions that might someday be used to disprove the theory,
 is tentative, correctable and dynamic, in allowing for changes to be made as new
data is discovered, rather than asserting certainty, and
 is the most parsimonious explanation, sparing in proposed entities or
explanations.
Principles
A principle refers to a fundamental truth. It establishes cause and effect
relationship between two or more variables under given situation. They serve as a guide to
thought and actions. Therefore, management principles are the statements of fundamental
truth based on logic which provides guidelines for managerial decision making and actions.
These principles are derived: a) On the basis of observation and analysis
b) By conducting experimental studies.
A principle is a law or rule that has to be, or usually is to be followed, or can be
desirably followed, or is an inevitable consequence of something, such as the laws of nature
or the way that a device is constructed. Examples of principles
เอกสารประกอบการสอนรายวิชาทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษา
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a descriptive comprehensive and fundamental law, doctrine, or assumption:
a normative rule or code of conduct,
a law or fact of nature underlying the working of an artificial device.
Characteristics of Principles
Management and administration is a discipline refers to that branch of knowledge
which is connected to study of principles and practices of basic administration. It specifies
certain code of conduct to be followed by the manager and also various methods for
managing resources efficiently. There are five characteristics of principles in term of
management:
universal
 Applicable to all kinds and level of organizations – business & non-business.
 Every organization must make best possible use by the use of management
principles
Flexible
 Dynamic guidelines and not static rules.
 They can be modified as per the requirements of the situation.
 Modification and improvement is a continuous phenomenon
Cause & effect relationships
 Indicate cause and effect relationship between related variables.
 They indicate what will be the consequence or result of certain actions
Influencing human behavior
 Directed towards regulating human behavior so that people can give their best to
the organization.
 Concerned with integrating efforts and harmonizing them towards a goal.
Equal importance
 No particular principle has greater importance than the other
 They are all required together for the achievement of organizational goals
Importance of the principles in management
Following are the main importance of the Principles in management.
 Improves Understanding – From the knowledge of principles managers get
indication on how to manage an organization. The principles enable managers to
decide what should be done to accomplish given tasks and to handle situations
which may arise in management. These principles make managers more
efficient.
 Direction for Training of Managers –Principles of management provide
understanding of management process what managers would do to accomplish
what. Thus, these are helpful in identifying the areas of management in which
existing & future managers should be trained.
 Role of Management – Management principles makes the role of managers
concrete. Therefore these principles act as ready reference to the managers to
check whether their decisions are appropriate. Besides these principles define
managerial activities in practical terms. They tell what a manager is expected to
do in specific situation.
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
Guide to Research in Management – The body of management principles
indicate lines along which research should be undertaken to make management
practical and more effective. The principles guide managers in decision making
and action. The researchers can examine whether the guidelines are useful or
not. Anything which makes management research more exact & pointed will
help improve management practice.
Concept
A concept (abstract term: conception) is a cognitive unit of meaning—an abstract
idea or a mental symbol sometimes defined as a "unit of knowledge," built from other units
which act as a concept's characteristics. A concept is typically associated with a
corresponding representation in a language or symbology such as a single meaning of a term.
There are prevailing theories in contemporary philosophy which attempt to explain
the nature of concepts. The representational theory of mind proposes that concepts are mental
representations, while the semantic theory of concepts(originating with Frege's distinction
between concept and object) holds that they are abstract objects. Ideas are taken to be
concepts, although abstract concepts do not necessarily appear to the mind as images as some ideas
do. Many philosophers consider concepts to be a fundamental ontological category of being.
Characteristics of Concept
Concepts share a number of characteristics(Antia, 1999)
In general concepts are language-independent. Though words describing a
concept may differ due to different languages or even by a variety of possibilities within a
given language, they result from experiences and education rather than existence as such.:
Concepts are mental or logical representations of reality. In this sense all
concepts are abstract and exist purely mentally, but they prepare a way for the human mind to
classify and to understand the minds perceptions.
Concepts are comprised of characteristics. The `mental image' of reality is
classified according to characteristics to enable the classification of other objects or concepts
as the same, a similar or different one (with all subclasses of these classes).
Concepts are negotiated within a knowledge community. For example, in a
specific field of interest all experts ought to have a similar `mental image' of an object so that
there are agreed features and characteristics they work on. Otherwise, to give a rather profane
example, one expert can talk about `fruit' while the other one discusses the color `red'
referring to the same reality.
Concepts are related to other concepts. There is no `mental image' to stand alone;
somehow there must be relations to other concepts.
Concepts do not need symbols but hold them for means of communication. If
someone sees a word denoting a concept as a symbol for the concept, then this is already
covered by the language independence of concepts. The existence of concepts without any
symbols representing them can be imagined, but if it were possible to give an example here,
there would automatically be a contradiction of not holding a symbol - here the description
could serve as a symbol.
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อีกแหล่งหนึง่
What is Theory?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, last modified on 31 December 2012
Theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking, or
the results of such thinking. Depending on the context, the results might for example include
generalized explanations of how nature works, or even how divine or metaphysical matters
are thought to work. The word has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern use it has taken
on several different related meanings.
One modern group of meanings emphasizes the speculative and generalizing nature
of theory. For example in the arts and philosophy, the term "theoretical" may be used to
describe ideas and empirical phenomena which are not easily measurable. And by extension
of the philosophical meaning, "theoria" is also a word still used in theological contexts. As
already in Aristotle's definitions, theory is very often contrasted to "practice" (from Greek
praxis, πρᾶξις) a Greek term for "doing", which is opposed to theory because pure theory
involves no doing apart from itself. A classical example of the distinction between theoretical
and practical uses the discipline of medicine: medical theory involves trying to understand
the causes and nature of health and sickness, while the practical side of medicine is trying to
make people healthy. These two things are related but can be independent, because it is
possible to research health and sickness without curing specific patients, and it is possible to
cure a patient without knowing how the cure worked.[1]
In modern science, the term "theory" refers to scientific theories, a well-confirmed
type of explanation of nature, made in a way consistent with scientific method, and fulfilling
the criteria required by modern science. Such theories are described in such a way that any
scientist in the field is in a position to understand and either provide empirical support
("verify") or empirically contradict ("falsify") it. Scientific theories are the most reliable,
rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge,[2] in contrast to more common
uses of the word "theory" that imply that something is unproven or speculative.[3] Scientific
theories are also distinguished from hypotheses, which are individual empirically testable
conjectures, and scientific laws, which are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave
under certain conditions.[4]
Ancient uses
The English word theory was derived from a technical term in philosophy in
Ancient Greek. As an everyday word, theoria, θεωρία, meant "a looking at, viewing,
beholding", but in more technical contexts it came to refer to contemplative or speculative
understandings of natural things, such as those of natural philosophers, as opposed to more
practical ways of knowing things, like that of skilled orators or artisans.[5] The word has been
in use in English since at least the late 16th century.[6] Modern uses of the word "theory" are
derived from the original definition, but have taken on new shades of meaning, still based on
the idea that a theory is a thoughtful and rational explanation of the general nature of things.
Although it has more mundane meanings in Greek, the word θεωρία apparently
developed special uses early in the recorded history of the Greek language. In the book From
Religion to Philosophy, Francis Cornford suggests that the Orphics used the word "theory" to
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mean 'passionate sympathetic contemplation'.[7] Pythagoras changed the word to mean a
passionate sympathetic contemplation of mathematical and scientific knowledge, because he
considered such intellectual pursuits the way to reach the highest plane of existence.
Pythagoras emphasized subduing emotions and bodily desires in order to enable the intellect
to function at the higher plane of theory. Thus it was Pythagoras who gave the word "theory"
the specific meaning which leads to the classical and modern concept of a distinction between
theory as uninvolved, neutral thinking, and practice.[8]
In Aristotle's terminology, as has already been mentioned above, theory is
contrasted with praxis or practice, which remains the case today. For Aristotle, both practice
and theory involve thinking, but the aims are different. Theoretical contemplation considers
things which humans do not move or change, such as nature, so it has no human aim apart
from itself and the knowledge it helps create. On the other hand, praxis involves thinking, but
always with an aim to desired actions, whereby humans cause change or movement
themselves for their own ends. Any human movement which involves no conscious choice
and thinking could not be an example of praxis or doing.[9]
Theories formally and scientifically
Main article: Theory (mathematical logic)
Theories are analytical tools for understanding, explaining, and making predictions
about a given subject matter. There are theories in many and varied fields of study, including
the arts and sciences. A formal theory is syntactic in nature and is only meaningful when
given a semantic component by applying it to some content (i.e. facts and relationships of the
actual historical world as it is unfolding). Theories in various fields of study are expressed in
natural language, but are always constructed in such a way that their general form is identical
to a theory as it is expressed in the formal language of mathematical logic. Theories may be
expressed mathematically, symbolically, or in common language, but are generally expected
to follow principles of rational thought or logic.
Theory is constructed of a set of sentences which consist entirely of true statements
about the subject matter under consideration. However, the truth of any one of these
statements is always relative to the whole theory. Therefore the same statement may be true
with respect to one theory, and not true with respect to another. This is, in ordinary language,
where statements such as "He is a terrible person" cannot be judged to be true or false
without reference to some interpretation of who "He" is and for that matter what a "terrible
person" is under the theory.[10]
Sometimes two theories have exactly the same explanatory power because they
make the same predictions. A pair of such theories is called indistinguishable, and the choice
between them reduces to convenience or philosophical preference.
The form of theories is studied formally in mathematical logic, especially in model
theory. When theories are studied in mathematics, they are usually expressed in some formal
language and their statements are closed under application of certain procedures called rules
of inference. A special case of this, an axiomatic theory, consists of axioms (or axiom
schemata) and rules of inference. A theorem is a statement that can be derived from those
axioms by application of these rules of inference. Theories used in applications are
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world problems. Obvious examples include arithmetic (abstracting concepts of number),
geometry (concepts of space), and probability (concepts of randomness and likelihood).
Gödel's incompleteness theorem shows that no consistent, recursively enumerable
theory (that is, one whose theorems form a recursively enumerable set) in which the concept
of natural numbers can be expressed, can include all true statements about them. As a result,
some domains of knowledge cannot be formalized, accurately and completely, as
mathematical theories. (Here, formalizing accurately and completely means that all true
propositions—and only true propositions—are derivable within the mathematical system.)
This limitation, however, in no way precludes the construction of mathematical theories that
formalize large bodies of scientific knowledge.
Underdetermination
Main article: Underdetermination
A theory is underdetermined (also called indeterminacy of data to theory) if, given
the available evidence cited to support the theory, there is a rival theory which is inconsistent
with it that is at least as consistent with the evidence. Underdetermination is an
epistemological issue about the relation of evidence to conclusions.
Intertheoretic reduction and elimination
Main article: Intertheoretic reduction
If there is a new theory which is better at explaining and predicting phenomena than
an older theory (i.e. it has more explanatory power), we are justified in believing that the
newer theory describes reality more correctly. This is called an intertheoretic reduction
because the terms of the old theory can be reduced to the terms of the new one. For instance,
our historical understanding about "sound," "light" and "heat" have today been reduced to
"wave compressions and rarefactions," "electromagnetic waves," and "molecular kinetic
energy," respectively. These terms which are identified with each other are called
intertheoretic identities. When an old theory and a new one are parallel in this way, we can
conclude that we are describing the same reality, only more completely.
In cases where a new theory uses new terms which do not reduce to terms of an
older one, but rather replace them entirely because they are actually a misrepresentation it is
called an intertheoretic elimination. For instance, the obsolete scientific theory that put
forward an understanding of heat transfer in terms of the movement of caloric fluid was
eliminated when a theory of heat as energy replaced it. Also, the theory that phlogiston is a
substance released from burning and rusting material was eliminated with the new
understanding of the reactivity of oxygen.
Theories vs. theorems
Theories are distinct from theorems. Theorems are derived deductively from
objections according to a formal system of rules, sometimes as an end in itself and sometimes
as a first step in testing or applying a theory in a concrete situation; theorems are said to be
true in the sense that the conclusions of a theorem are logical consequences of the objections.
Theories are abstract and conceptual, and to this end they are always considered true. They
are supported or challenged by observations in the world. They are 'rigorously tentative',
meaning that they are proposed as true and expected to satisfy careful examination to account
for the possibility of faulty inference or incorrect observation. Sometimes theories are
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incorrect, meaning that an explicit set of observations contradicts some fundamental
objection or application of the theory, but more often theories are corrected to conform to
new observations, by restricting the class of phenomena the theory applies to or changing the
assertions made. An example of the former is the restriction of Classical mechanics to
phenomena involving macroscopic lengthscales and particle speeds much lower than the
speed of light.
"Sometimes a hypothesis never reaches the point of being considered a theory
because the answer is not found to derive its assertions analytically or not applied
empirically."
Philosophical theories
Main article: Philosophical theory
Theories whose subject matter consists not in empirical data, but rather in ideas are
in the realm of philosophical theories as contrasted with scientific theories. At least some of
the elementary theorems of a philosophical theory are statements whose truth cannot
necessarily be scientifically tested through empirical observation.
Fields of study are sometimes named "theory" because their basis is some initial set
of objections describing the field's approach to a subject matter. These assumptions are the
elementary theorems of the particular theory, and can be thought of as the axioms of that
field. Some commonly known examples include set theory and number theory; however
literary theory, critical theory, and music theory are also of the same form.
Metatheory
Main article: Metatheory
One form of philosophical theory is a metatheory or meta-theory. A metatheory is a
theory whose subject matter is some other theory. In other words it is a theory about a theory.
Statements made in the metatheory about the theory are called metatheorems.
Political theories
Main article: Political theory
A political theory is an ethical theory about the law and government. Often the term
"political theory" refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about
politics.
Scientific theories
Main article: Scientific theory
In science, the term "theory" refers to "a well-substantiated explanation of some
aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed
through observation and experiment."[11][12] Theories must also meet further requirements,
such as the ability to make falsifiable predictions with consistent accuracy across a broad area
of scientific inquiry, and production of strong evidence in favor of the theory from multiple
independent sources. (See characteristics of scientific theories.)
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The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can
explain, which is measured by its ability to make falsifiable predictions with respect to those
phenomena. Theories are improved (or replaced by better theories) as more evidence is
gathered, so that accuracy in prediction improves over time; this increased accuracy
corresponds to an increase in scientific knowledge. Scientists use theories as a foundation to
gain further scientific knowledge, as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing
technology or curing disease.
Definitions from scientific organizations
The United States National Academy of Sciences defines scientific theories as
follows:
The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday
meaning of the word. It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is
supported by a vast body of evidence. Many scientific theories are so well established that no
new evidence is likely to alter them substantially. For example, no new evidence will
demonstrate that the Earth does not orbit around the sun (heliocentric theory), or that living
things are not made of cells (cell theory), that matter is not composed of atoms, or that the
surface of the Earth is not divided into solid plates that have moved over geological
timescales (the theory of plate tectonics)...One of the most useful properties of scientific
theories is that they can be used to make predictions about natural events or phenomena that
have not yet been observed.[13]
From the American Association for the Advancement of Science:
A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural
world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and
experiment. Such fact-supported theories are not "guesses" but reliable accounts of the real
world. The theory of biological evolution is more than "just a theory." It is as factual an
explanation of the universe as the atomic theory of matter or the germ theory of disease. Our
understanding of gravity is still a work in progress. But the phenomenon of gravity, like
evolution, is an accepted fact.[12]
Note that the term theory would not be appropriate for describing untested but
intricate hypotheses or even scientific models.
Philosophical views of theories
The logical positivists thought of scientific theories as deductive theories - that a
theory's content is based on some formal system of logic and on basic axioms. In a deductive
theory, any sentence which is a logical consequence of one or more of the axioms is also a
sentence of that theory.[10] This is called the received view of theories.
In the semantic view of theories, which has largely replaced the received view,
theories are viewed as scientific models. A model is a logical framework intended to
represent reality (a "model of reality"), similar to the way that a map is a graphical model that
represents the territory of a city or country. In this approach, theories are a specific category
of models which fulfill the necessary criteria. (See Theories as models for further discussion.)
Theories in physics
In physics the term theory is generally used for a mathematical framework—derived
from a small set of basic postulates (usually symmetries, like equality of locations in space or
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in time, or identity of electrons, etc.)—which is capable of producing experimental
predictions for a given category of physical systems. One good example is classical
electromagnetism, which encompasses results derived from gauge symmetry (sometimes
called gauge invariance) in a form of a few equations called Maxwell's equations. The
specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed "laws of
electromagnetism," reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports
them. Within electromagnetic theory generally, there are numerous hypotheses about how
electromagnetism applies to specific situations. Many of these hypotheses are already
considered to be adequately tested, with new ones always in the making and perhaps
untested.
The term theoretical
Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if
it is already supported by sufficiently strong evidence. For example, certain tests may be
unfeasible or technically difficult. As a result, theories may make predictions that have not
yet been confirmed or proven incorrect; in this case, the predicted results may be described
informally with the term "theoretical." These predictions can be tested at a later time, and if
they are incorrect, this may lead to revision or rejection of the theory.
What is Concept ?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, last modified on 4 January 2013
A concept is a general idea, or something conceived in the mind.[1]
Notable definitions
John Locke's description of a general idea corresponds to a description of a concept.
According to Locke, a general idea is created by abstracting, drawing away, or removing the
uncommon characteristic or characteristics from several particular ideas. The remaining
common characteristic is that which is similar to all of the different individuals. For example,
the abstract general idea or concept that is designated by the word "red" is that characteristic
which is common to apples, cherries, and blood. The abstract general idea or concept that is
signified by the word "dog" is the collection of those characteristics which are common to
Airedales, Collies, and Chihuahuas.[citation needed]
John Stuart Mill argued that general conceptions are formed through abstraction. A
general conception is the common element among the many images of members of a class.
"...[W]hen we form a set of phenomena into a class, that is, when we compare them with one
another to ascertain in what they agree, some general conception is implied in this mental
operation" (A System of Logic, Book IV, Ch. II). Mill did not believe that concepts exist in
the mind before the act of abstraction. "It is not a law of our intellect, that, in comparing
things with each other and taking note of their agreement, we merely recognize as realized in
the outward world something that we already had in our minds. The conception originally
found its way to us as the result of such a comparison. It was obtained (in metaphysical
phrase) by abstraction from individual things" (Ibid.).
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Philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer argued that concepts are "mere abstractions from
what is known through intuitive perception, and they have arisen from our arbitrarily thinking
away or dropping of some qualities and our retention of others." (Parerga and Paralipomena,
Vol. I, "Sketch of a History of the Ideal and the Real"). In his On the Will in Nature,
"Physiology and Pathology," Schopenhauer said that a concept is "drawn off from previous
images ... by putting off their differences. This concept is then no longer intuitively
perceptible, but is denoted and fixed merely by words." Nietzsche, who was heavily
influenced by Schopenhauer, wrote: "Every concept originates through our equating what is
unequal. No leaf ever wholly equals another, and the concept 'leaf' is formed through an
arbitrary abstraction from these individual differences, through forgetting the
distinctions..."[2]
By contrast to the above philosophers, Immanuel Kant held that the account of the
concept as an abstraction of experience is only partly correct. He called those concepts that
result from abstraction "a posteriori concepts" (meaning concepts that arise out of
experience). An empirical or an a posteriori concept is a general representation (Vorstellung)
or non-specific thought of that which is common to several specific perceived objects (Logic,
I, 1., §1, Note 1)
A concept is a common feature or characteristic. Kant investigated the way that
empirical a posteriori concepts are created.
The logical acts of the understanding by which concepts are generated as to their
form are:
comparison, i.e., the likening of mental images to one another in relation to the
unity of consciousness;
reflection, i.e., the going back over different mental images, how they can be
comprehended in one consciousness; and finally
abstraction or the segregation of everything else by which the mental images differ
...
In order to make our mental images into concepts, one must thus be able to
compare, reflect, and abstract, for these three logical operations of the understanding are
essential and general conditions of generating any concept whatever. For example, I see a fir,
a willow, and a linden. In firstly comparing these objects, I notice that they are different from
one another in respect of trunk, branches, leaves, and the like; further, however, I reflect only
on what they have in common, the trunk, the branches, the leaves themselves, and abstract
from their size, shape, and so forth; thus I gain a concept of a tree.
Kant's description of the making of a concept has been paraphrased as "...to
conceive is essentially to think in abstraction what is common to a plurality of possible
instances..." (H.J. Paton, Kant's Metaphysics of Experience, I, 250). In his discussion of Kant,
Christopher Janaway wrote: "...generic concepts are formed by abstraction from more than
one species."[3]
Issues in concept theory
A priori concepts
Main article: Category (Kant)
Kant declared that human minds possess pure or a priori concepts. Instead of being
abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts, they originate in the mind
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itself. He called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate,
attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things in
general, not of a particular thing. According to Kant, there are 12 categories that constitute
the understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that one predicate which is
common to multiple empirical concepts. In order to explain how an a priori concept can
relate to individual phenomena, in a manner analogous to an a posteriori concept, Kant
employed the technical concept of the schema.
Origin
Carl Jung argues that concepts may be attributed to space other than within the
inside boundaries of any body or mass or material formation of living creatures.[citation needed]
Embodied content
In cognitive linguistics, abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts
derived from embodied experience. The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping,
in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended
space (Fauconnier & Turner, 1995; see conceptual blending). A common class of blends are
metaphors. This theory contrasts with the rationalist view that concepts are perceptions (or
recollections, in Plato's term) of an independently existing world of ideas, in that it denies the
existence of any such realm. It also contrasts with the empiricist view that concepts are
abstract generalizations of individual experiences, because the contingent and bodily
experience is preserved in a concept, and not abstracted away. While the perspective is
compatible with Jamesian pragmatism (above), the notion of the transformation of embodied
concepts through structural mapping makes a distinct contribution to the problem of concept
formation.[citation needed]
Ontology
Plato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts. By his
view, concepts (and ideas in general) are innate ideas that were instantiations of a
transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world. In this way,
universals were explained as transcendent objects. Needless to say this form of realism was
tied deeply with Plato's ontological projects. This remark on Plato is not of merely historical
interest. For example, the view that numbers are Platonic objects was revived by Kurt Gödel
as a result of certain puzzles that he took to arise from the phenomenological accounts.[4]
Gottlob Frege, founder of the analytic tradition in philosophy, famously argued for
the analysis of language in terms of sense and reference. For him, the sense of an expression
in language describes a certain state of affairs in the world, namely, the way that some object
is presented. Since many commentators view the notion of sense as identical to the notion of
concept, and Frege regards senses as the linguistic representations of states of affairs in the
world, it seems to follow that we may understand concepts as the manner in which we grasp
the world. Accordingly, concepts (as senses) have an ontological status (Morgolis:7)
According to Carl Benjamin Boyer, in the introduction to his The History of the
Calculus and its Conceptual Development, concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions.
As long as the concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own.
For example, the concepts of the derivative and the integral are not considered to refer to
spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in
any way to mysterious limits in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence,
that is, coming into or going out of existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be
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totally autonomous, even though they originated from the process of abstracting or taking
away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained.
Etymology
The term "concept" is traced back to 1554–60 (Latin conceptum - "something
conceived"),[5] but what is today termed "the classical theory of concepts" is the theory of
Aristotle on the definition of terms.[citation needed] The meaning of "concept" is explored in
mainstream information science,[6][7] cognitive science, metaphysics, and philosophy of mind.
In computer and information science contexts, especially, the term 'concept' is often used in
unclear or inconsistent ways.[8]
What is Principle ?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, last modified on 28 November 2012
A principle is a law or rule that has to be, or usually is to be followed, or can be
desirably followed, or is an inevitable consequence of something, such as the laws observed
in nature or the way that a system is constructed. The principles of such a system are
understood by its users as the essential characteristics of the system, or reflecting system's
designed purpose, and the effective operation or use of which would be impossible if any one
of the principles was to be ignored.[1]
Examples of principles:
a descriptive comprehensive and fundamental law, doctrine, or assumption,
a normative rule or code of conduct,
a law or fact of nature underlying the working of an artificial device.
Principle as cause
The principle of any effect is the cause that produces it.
Depending on the way the cause is understood the basic law governing that cause
may acquire some distinction in its expression.
Principle of causality, as efficient cause
The efficient cause is the one that produces the necessary effect, as long as the
necessary and sufficient conditions are provided.
The scientific process generally consists of establishing a cause by analyzing its
effect upon objects. In this way, a description can be established to explain what principle
brought about the change-effect. For this reason the principle of cause is considered to be a
determining factor in the production of facts.
The principle of causality states, "every event has a cause"; i.e., everything that
begins to exist must have a cause. It was formulated by Aristotle as "Everything that moves is
moved by another". This principle, in conjunction with the principle that an infinite regress is
not possible, has been used to argue for God's existence. The principle of causality is often
associated with the similar, though distinct, principle of sufficient reason, according to which,
there is a reason why everything is the particular way it is rather than some other way.
Principle as a final cause
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Final cause is the end, or goal, which guides one to take the necessary actions to
obtain it.
For that there needs to be an intelligence capable of conceiving the end and
realizing that certain actions must be taken to achieve the goal.
Science does not recognize the finality of the natural causes as a guiding principle
of investigation.
It is also understood therefore that the principle guides the action as a norm or rule
of behavior, which produces two types of principles.
Principle as law
Principle as scientific law
Laws Physics. Laws Statistics. Laws Biological. Laws of nature are those that
cannot be (or are not) proven explicitly, however we can measure and quantify them by
observing the results that they produce.[vague][clarification needed]
Principle as moral law
It represents a set of values that orientate and rule the conduct of a concrete society.
The law establishes an obligation in the individual's conscience that belongs to the cultural
field in which such values are accepted. It supposes the liberty of the individual as cause, that
acts without external coercion, through a process of socialization.
Principle as a juridic law
It represents a set of values that inspire the written norms that organize the life of a
society submitting to the powers of an authority, generally the State. The law establishes a
legal obligation, in a coercive way; it therefore acts as principle conditioning of the action
that limits the liberty of the individuals.
Principle as axiom or logical fundament
Principle of sufficient reason
This is based on the truth or intelligibility of the being. The being has an identity
and is intelligible, in virtue that it is. (The intelligibility is the identity of the being with
intelligence.) That in virtue of which the being is intelligible, is called the reason or
fundament of being. Here is the ontological principle: ‘’Every being has enough reason’’.
Without this enough reason, the identity with oneself would be lost, becoming a non-being
and therefore nothing. If a being lacked enough reason, of explication, it wouldn't be
intelligible, conceiving itself as an absurd unreal non-being.
Principle of identity
This comes in consequence from the characteristic of identity of the being. The
being is the being, and whoever denies that statement would be against the previously
exposed. However, saying "what is, is what is" would seem, as a trial, merely analytical (A =
A), but one realizes that in every sentence there is a direct relation between the predicate and
the subject. To say "the earth is round", corresponds to a direct relation between the subject
and the predicate. Taking this to the sentence "the being is the being", we realize the principle
of identity that the being possesses.
Principle of contradiction
"One thing can't be and not be at the same time, under the same aspect." Example: It
is not possible that in exactly the same moment it rains and doesn't rain (in the same place).
see Law of noncontradiction
Principle of excluded middle
The principle of the excluding third or "principium tertium exclusum" is a principle
of the traditional logic formulated canonically by Leibniz as: either A is B or A isn't B. It is
read the following way: either P is true, or its denial ¬P is. It is also known as "tertium non
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ศึกษาเพืit่อisหาบทสรุ
ปว่า to be one of the most important
datur" ('A third (thing) is not). Classically
considered
fundamental principles or lawsในรายวิ
of thought
ชานี ้ควรศึก(along
ษาทฤษฎีอwith
ะไรบ้ างthe principles of identity, no
contradiction and sufficient reason). see Law of excluded middle.
What is the difference between Management and Administration?
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_difference_between_management_and_administration
Answer.com, Vikas Bhojwani, 2012
There are many factors according to which administration can be distinguished from
management. These are as follows:
Nature of work
 Administration: It is concerned about the determination of objectives and major
policies of an organization.
 Management: It puts into action the policies and plans laid down by the administration.
Type of function
 Administration: It is a determinative function.
 Management: It is an executive function.
Scope
 Administration: It takes major decisions of an enterprise as a whole.
 Management: It takes decisions within the framework set by the administration.
Level of authority
 Administration: It is a top-level activity.
 Management: It is a middle level activity.
Nature of status
 Administration: It consists of owners who invest capital in and receive profits from an
enterprise.
 Management: It is a group of managerial personnel who use their specialized
knowledge to fulfill the objectives of an enterprise.
Nature of usage
 Administration: It is popular with government, military, educational, and religious
organizations.
 Management: It is used in business enterprises.
Decision making
 Administration: Its decisions are influenced by public opinion, government policies,
social, and religious factors.
 Management: Its decisions are influenced by the values, opinions, and beliefs of the managers.
Main functions
 Administration: Planning and organizing functions are involved in it.
 Management: Motivating and controlling functions are involved in it.
Abilities
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

Administration: It needs administrative rather than technical abilities.
Management: It requires technical activities
Educational Management and Administration
http://www.scribd.com/doc/52442951/Educational-Management-and-Administration
Mohd Zulfadly Othman (2011).
Successful operation of an educational institution requires competent management
and administration system. Educational management and administration provide instructional
leadership and manage the day-to-day activities in schools, preschools, day care centers, and
colleges and universities. They also direct the educational programs of businesses,
correctional institutions, museums, and job training and community service organizations.
Education administrators set educational standards and goals and establish the policies and
procedures required to achieve them. They also supervise managers, support staff ,teachers,
counselors, librarians, coaches, and other employees. They develop academic programs,
monitor students’ educational progress, train and motivate teachers and other staff ,manage
career counseling and other student services, administer recordkeeping, prepare budgets, and
perform many other duties. They also handle relations with parents, prospective and current
students, employers, and the community. In a smaller organization such as a small day care
center, one administrator may handle all these functions. In universities or large school
systems, responsibilities are divided among many administrators, each with a specific
function.
The Concept of Management and Administration
By the 21st century the main theories of management and administration have either
been developed in the educational context or have been adapted from industrial models to
meet the specific requirements of schools and colleges. Educational management and
administration has progressed from being a new field dependent upon ideas developed in
other settings to become an established field with its own theories and research.
The verb manage comes from the Italian maneggi are (to handle --- especially
tools), which in turn derives from the Latin manus (hand). The French word masnagement
(later management) influenced the development in meaning of the English word management
in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Some definitions of management are
a) Organization and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance
with certain policies and in achievement of clearly defined objectives. Management is often
included as a factor of production along with machines, materials, and money. The basic task
of a management is twofold: marketing and innovation.
b) Directors and managers have the power and responsibility to make decisions to
manage an enterprise. As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions of
formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the firm's
resources to achieve the policy's objectives. The size of management can range from one
person in a small firm to hundreds or thousands of managers in multinational companies. In
large firms the board of directors formulates the policy which is implemented by the chief
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executive officer. Educational management as a field of study and practice was derived from
management principles first applied to industry and commerce. Theory development largely
involved the application of industrial models to educational settings. As the subject became
established as an academic field in its own right ,its theorists and practitioners began to
develop alternative models based on their observation of, and experience in, schools and
colleges.
According to Theo Haimann --- Administration means overall determination of
policies, setting of major objectives, the identification of general purposes and laying down
of broad programs and projects. It refers to the activities of higher level. It lays down basic
principles of the enterprise. According to Newman, Administration means guidance,
leadership & control of the efforts of the groups towards some common goals. Administration
is that public institution which makes decisions concerning specific problems on the basis of
general legal standards, resolving those problems by implementing special measures. (Krott,
2005).
Overlaps between Management and Administration
The concept of management overlaps with two similar terms, leadership and
administration. Management is widely used in Britain, Europe, and Africa, for example,
while administration is preferred in the United States, Canada, and Australia. Leadership is
of great contemporary interest in most countries in the developed World. Dimmock
(1999) differentiates these concepts whilst also acknowledging that there are competing
definitions:
School leaders [experience] tensions between competing elements of leadership,
management and administration. Irrespective of how these terms are defined, school leaders
experience difficulty in deciding the balance between higher order tasks designed to improve
staff, student and school performance (leadership), routine maintenance of present operations
(management) and lower order duties(administration).
Administration is not associated with lower order duties but may be seen as the
overarching term, which embraces both leadership and management. Cuban (1988) provides
one of the clearest distinctions between leadership and management.
Leadership and management need to be given equal prominence if schools are to
operate effectively and achieve their objectives. “Leading and managing are distinct, but both
are important” The challenge of modern organizations requires the objective perspective of
the manager as well as the flashes of vision and commitment wise leadership provides.
(Bolman & Deal, 1997) The difference between Management and Administration can be
summarized under two categories:1.
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Functions
Usage / Applicability
On the Basis of Functions
Basis
Meaning
Nature
Process
Management
Management is an art of getting
things done through others by
directing their efforts towards
achievement of pre-determined
goals.
Management is an executing
function
Management decides who should
as it & how should he dot it.
Function
Management is a doing function
because managers get work done
under their supervision
Skills
Level
Applicability
Technical and Human skills
Middle and lower level function
It is applicable to business
concerns i.e. profit-making
organization
The management decisions are
influenced by the values,
opinions, beliefs & decisions
of the managers
Management constitutes the
employees of the organization
who are paid remuneration (in the
form of salaries and wages).
Influence
Status
Administration
It is concerned with
formulation of broad
objectives, plans and policies.
Administration is a decisionmaking function.
Administration decides what
is to be done and when it is to be
done.
Administration is a thinking
function because plans and
policies are determined under
it.
Conceptual and Human skills
Top level function
It is applicable to non-business
concerns i.e. clubs, schools,
hospitals etc.
The administration is
influenced by public opinion,
govt. policies, religious
organizations, customs etc.
Administration represents
owners of the enterprise who
earn return on their capital
invested and profits in the
form of dividend
Practically, there is no difference between management and administration. Every
manager is concerned with both administrative management function and operative
management function as shown in the Figure 2.1. However, the managers who are higher up
in the hierarchy denote more time on administrative function and the lower level denote more
time on directing and controlling worker’s performance. Top Level Middle Level Lower
Level
Leadership and management
Leadership and management are the terms that are often considered synonymous. It
is essential to understand that leadership is an essential part of effective management. As a
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crucial component of management, remarkable leadership behavior stresses upon building an
environment in which each and every employee develops and excels. Leadership is defined as
the potential to influence and drive the group efforts towards the accomplishment of goals.
This influence may originate from formal sources, such as that provided by acquisition
of managerial position in an organization. A manager must have traits of a leader, i.e., he
must possess leadership qualities. Leaders develop and begin strategies that build and sustain
competitive advantage. Organizations require robust leadership and robust management for
optimal organizational efficiency.
Leaders and Managers can be compared on the following basis:
Basis
Origin
Formal Rights
Followers
Manager
A person becomes a manager by
virtue of his position.
Manager has got formal rights in
an organization because of his
status.
The subordinates are the
followers of managers.
Functions
A manager performs all five
functions of management.
Necessity
A manager is very essential to a
concern.
Stability
Mutual
Relationship
Accountability
It is more stable.
All managers are leaders.
Concern
Followers
Role
continuation
Sanctions
Manager is accountable for
self and subordinates behavior
and performance.
A manager’s concern is
organizational goals.
People follow manager by virtue
of job description
A manager can continue in office
till he performs his duties
satisfactorily in congruence with
organizational goals.
Manager has command over
allocation and distribution
of sanctions.
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Leader
A person becomes a leader on
basis of his personal qualities.
Rights are not available to a
leader.
The group of employees
whom the leaders lead is his
followers.
Leader influences people to
work willingly for group
objectives.
A leader is required to create
cordial relation between
person working in and for
organization.
Leadership is temporary.
All leaders are not managers.
Leaders have no well defined
accountability.
A leader’s concern is group
goals and member’s
satisfaction.
People follow them on
voluntary basis.
A leader can maintain his
position only through day to
day wishes of followers.
A leader has command over
different sanctions and related
task records. These sanctions
are essentially of informal
nature.
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บทสรุ ป
ทั ศ นะจาก 2 แหล่ ง ที่ น ามากล่ า วถึ ง ข้า งบน หากจะกล่ า วถึ ง “ความนิ ย ม” ในการใช้ค า ก็ อ าจกล่ า วได้ว่ า
Management ใช้กนั มากในบางภูมิภาค เช่น Britain, Europe, and Africa ขณะที่ administration นิ ยมใช้กนั ที่ United States,
Canada, and Australia ส่ ว น Leadership นั้ นก าลัง เป็ นที่ ส นใจใช้ กัน ในประเทศที่ พ ัฒ นาแล้ว (most countries in the
developed World)
แ ต่ ห า ก พิ จ า ร ณ า ถึ ง ลั ก ษ ณ ะ เ ด่ น ข อ ง แ ต่ ล ะ ค า โ ด ย ภ า พ ร ว ม แ ล้ ว management
เกี่ ยวข้องกับ ทัก ษะเชิ งเทคนิ คและทัก ษะเชิ งมนุ ษ ย์ (technical skills & human skills) มากกว่า ในขณะที่ administration
เกี่ ย ว ข้ อ ง กั บ ทั ก ษ ะ เชิ ง ม โ น ทั ศ น์ (conceptual skills) ม า ก ก ว่ า ซึ่ ง ห ม า ย ค ว า ม ว่ า management
เกี่ ย วข้อ งกั บ ผู ้บ ริ หารระดั บ ต้น และระดั บ กลาง ในขณะที่ administration เกี่ ย วข้อ งกั บ ผู ้บ ริ หารระดั บ สู ง มากกว่ า
และก็หมายความว่า administration เกี่ ยวข้องกับการตัดสิ นใจ (decision making) เพื่อกาหนดทิ ศทางขององค์การ (broad
objectives, plans and policies) คือ หน้าที่การวางแผน (planning) และหน้าที่การจัดองค์การ (organizing) มากกว่า ในขณะที่
management เ กี่ ย ว ข้ อ ง กั บ ห น้ า ที่ ก า ร จู ง ใ จ (motivating) แ ล ะ ก า ร ค ว บ คุ ม (controlling)
เพื่อให้งานบรรลุผลในทิศทางนั้นมากกว่า เป็ นต้น
ส่ วน leadership นั้น มี ความส าคัญ ถื อเป็ นองค์ป ระกอบที่ ส าคัญ ของ effective management เพราะการจะเป็ น
effective manager นั้น จะต้องเป็ น effective leader ด้วย โดยสิ่ งที่ ทุกๆ องค์การต้องการคือ robust management and robust
leadership ในขณะที่ administration นั้นควบรวมทั้งเรื่ องของภาวะผูน้ าและการบริ หารจัดการอยู่ดว้ ยกัน (embraces both
leadership and management)
หากไม่พิจารณาถึงแหล่งที่ นิยมใช้คา แต่พิจารณาจากลักษณะเด่นของ management, administration, leadership
ดั ง ก ล่ า ว ข้ าง ต้ น แ ล้ ว เห็ น ไ ด้ ว่ า management, administration, leadership ต่ า ง มี ลั ก ษ ณ ะ เด่ น ข อ ง ต น เอ ง
โดยลักษณะเด่นนั้นไม่ขดั แย้งกัน แต่ต่างช่วยเสริ ม (added on) ให้กนั และกัน (วิโรจน์ สารรัตนะ, 2556)
ดังนั้น การศึกษาทฤษฎีการบริหารการศึกษาในรายวิชานี้ เพื่อให้ เกิดประโยชน์ สูงสุ ด จึงจะศึกษาทฤษฎีจาก 3 แหล่ง คือ
 Management
 Administration
 Leadership
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Management
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, last modified on 9 January 2013
Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting
people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources
efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or
directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort
for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and
manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources and natural
resources.
Since organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as
human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a
system. This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, a pre-requisite to attempting to
manage others.
History
The verb manage comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle — especially tools),
which in turn derives from the Latin manus (hand). The French word mesnagement (later
ménagement) influenced the development in meaning of the English word management in the
17th and 18th centuries.[1]
Some definitions of management are:
1.
Organization and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance
with certain policies and in achievement of clearly defined objectives. Management is often
included as a factor of production along with machines, materials and money. According to
the management guru Peter Drucker (1909–2005), the basic task of a management is twofold:
marketing and innovation.
2.
Directors and managers have the power and responsibility to make decisions
to manage an enterprise when given the authority by the shareholders. As a discipline,
management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate policy and
organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the firm's resources to achieve the policy's
objectives. The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds or
thousands of managers in multinational companies. In large firms the board of directors
formulates the policy which is implemented by the chief executive officer.
Theoretical scope
At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting
plans, meeting goals. This applies even in situations planning does not take place. From this
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perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925)[2] considers management to consist of six functions:
forecasting, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. He was one of
the most influential contributors to modern concepts of management.
Another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), defined management as
"the art of getting things done through people". She described management as philosophy.[3]
Some people, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase
"management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining
management, the shifting nature of definitions and the connection of managerial practices
with the existence of a managerial cadre or class.
One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business
administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example
in charities and in the public sector. More realistically, however, every organization must
manage its work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness. Nonetheless,
many people refer to university departments which teach management as "business schools."
Some institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name while others (such as
the Yale School of Management) employ the more inclusive term "management."
English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a
collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation.
Historically this use of the term was often contrasted with the term "Labor" referring to those
being managed.
Nature of managerial work
In for-profit work, management has as its primary function the satisfaction of a
range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating
valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers) and providing rewarding employment
opportunities (for employees). In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the
faith of donors. In most models of management/governance, shareholders vote for the board
of directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have
experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or
reviewing managers; but this occurs only very rarely.
In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, voters
elect politicians to public office. Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and
in some countries like the United States political appointees lose their jobs on the election of
a new president/governor/mayor.
Historical development
Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by definition)
as a late modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot
have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect
management-like-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of
ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of
exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce,
but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the
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issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic
numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494)
provided tools for management assessment, planning and control.
Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized recordkeeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of
enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with
growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals,
industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent
specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.
Early writing
While management has been present for millennia, several writers have created a
background of works that assisted in modern management theories.[4]
Sun Tzu's The Art of War
Written by Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC, The Art of War is a
military strategy book that, for managerial purposes, recommends being aware of and acting
on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.[4]
Chanakya's Arthashastra
Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra around 300BC in which various strategies,
techniques and management theories were written which gives an account on the
management of empires, economy and family. The work is often compared to the later works
of Machiavelli[citation needed].
Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince
Believing that people were motivated by self-interest, Niccolò Machiavelli wrote
The Prince in 1513 as advice for the city of Florence, Italy.[5] Machiavelli recommended that
leaders use fear—but not hatred—to maintain control[citation needed].
Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations
Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of
Nations aims for efficient organization of work through Specialization of labor.[5] Smith
described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins.
While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in
manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled production of 48,000 pins per day.[5]
19th century
Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–
1873) provided a theoretical background to resource-allocation, production, and pricing
issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–
1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such
as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts,
and work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slavebased sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the
contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production.
20th century
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By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they
regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this
belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick
Winslow Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Frank and Lillian
Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote
the first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to
Japan and became first management consultant of the "Japanese-management style". His son
Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance.
The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The
Harvard Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA)
in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and Alexander Church described the various
branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like
Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology
to management, while other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett
(1868–1933), Chester Barnard (1886–1961), Max Weber (1864–1920), Rensis Likert (1903–
1981), and Chris Argyris (1923 - ) approached the phenomenon of management from a
sociological perspective.
Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management:
Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of
General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organisation. Drucker went on to
write 39 books, many in the same vein.
H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical
techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett combined these statistical
theories with microeconomic theory and gave birth to the science of operations research.
Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's
scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving management
problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations.
Some of the more recent developments include the Theory of Constraints,
management by objectives, reengineering, Six Sigma and various information-technologydriven theories such as agile software development, as well as group management theories
such as Cog's Ladder.
As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century
and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of
prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their
wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology
than with scientific theories of management.
Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six
separate branches, namely:
Human resource management
Operations management or production management
Strategic management
Marketing management
Financial management
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Information technology management responsible for management information
systems
21st century
In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management
into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve
several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and
objects subject to management.
Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government:
such as public administration, public management, and educational management. Further,
management programs related to civil-society organizations have also spawned programs in
nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship.
Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack
from business ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.
As one consequence, workplace democracy has become both more common, and
more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among the workers,
each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current
political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. All
management to some degree embraces democratic principles in that in the long term workers
must give majority support to management; otherwise they leave to find other work, or go on
strike. Despite the move toward workplace democracy, command-and-control organization
structures remain commonplace and the de facto organization structure. Indeed, the
entrenched nature of command-and-control can be seen in the way that recent layoffs have
been conducted with management ranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels.
In some cases, management has even rewarded itself with bonuses after laying off level
workers.[6]
According to leading leadership academic Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, it's almost
inevitable these days that there will be some personality disorders in a senior management
team.[7]
Topics
Basic functions
Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning,
organizing, staffing, leading/directing, controlling/monitoring and motivation.
Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next
month, next year, over the next five years, etc.) and generating plans for action.
Organizing: (Implementation)pattern of relationships among workers, making
optimum use of the resources required to enable the successful carrying out of plans.
Staffing: Job analysis, recruitment and hiring for appropriate jobs.
Leading/directing: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting
people to do it.
Controlling/monitoring: Checking progress against plans.
Motivation: Motivation is also a kind of basic function of management, because
without motivation, employees cannot work effectively. If motivation does not take place in
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an organization, then employees may not contribute to the other functions (which are usually
set by top-level management).
Basic roles
Interpersonal: roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees.
Informational: roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information.
Decisional: roles that require decision-making.
Management skills
Political: used to build a power base and establish connections.
Conceptual: used to analyze complex situations.
Interpersonal: used to communicate, motivate, mentor and delegate.
Diagnostic: ability to visualize most appropriate response to a situation .
Formation of the business policy
 The mission of the business is the most obvious purpose—which may be, for
example, to make soap.
 The vision of the business reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended
direction or future destination.
 The objectives of the business refers to the ends or activity at which a certain
task is aimed.
 The business's policy is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and objectives,
and may be used in the managers' decision-making. It must be flexible and
easily interpreted and understood by all employees.
 The business's strategy refers to the coordinated plan of action that it is going to
take, as well as the resources that it will use, to realize its vision and long-term
objectives. It is a guideline to managers, stipulating how they ought to allocate
and utilize the factors of production to the business's advantage. Initially, it
could help the managers decide on what type of business they want to form.
Implementation of policies and strategies
 All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and
staff.
 Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies
and strategies.
 A plan of action must be devised for each department.
 Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.
 Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.
 Assessments of progress ought to be carried out regularly by top-level
managers.
 A good environment and team spirit is required within the business.
 The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be
analysed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.
 The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future
environment.
 A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that
policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives.
All policies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff that is
required in the execution of any departmental policy.
 Organizational change is strategically achieved through the implementation of
the eight-step plan of action established by John P. Kotter: Increase urgency, get
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the vision right, communicate the buy-in, empower action, create short-term
wins, don't let up, and make change stick.[9]
Policies and strategies in the planning process
 They give mid and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each
department in an organization.
 A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.
 Mid and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's
strategies.
Levels of management
Most organizations have three management levels: first-level, middle-level, and toplevel managers.[citation needed] These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and
perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers in every level
resembles a pyramid. Each level is explained below in specifications of their different
responsibilities and likely job titles.[10]
Top-level managers
Consists of board of directors, president, vice-president, CEOs, etc. They are
responsible for controlling and overseeing the entire organization. They develop goals,
strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the direction of the business. In
addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources
and are accountable to the shareholders and general public.
According to Lawrence S. Kleiman, the following skills are needed at the top
managerial level. [11]
 Broadened understanding of how: competition, world economies, politics, and
social trends effect organizational effectiveness .
Middle-level managers
Consist of general managers, branch managers and department managers. They are
accountable to the top management for their department's function. They devote more time to
organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing
organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the objectives of the top
management, they define and discuss information and policies from top management to lower
management, and most importantly they inspire and provide guidance to lower level
managers towards better performance. Some of their functions are as follows:
 Designing and implementing effective group and intergroup work and
information systems.
 Defining and monitoring group-level performance indicators.
 Diagnosing and resolving problems within and among work groups.
 Designing and implementing reward systems supporting cooperative behavior.
First-level managers
Consist of supervisors, section leads, foremen, etc. They focus on controlling and
directing. They usually have the responsibility of assigning employees tasks, guiding and
supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring quality and quantity production,
making recommendations, suggestions, and upchanneling employee problems, etc. First-level
managers are role models for employees that provide:
 Basic supervision.
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หน้ า 32
ทฤษฎี
เหล่านี้ เน้นการพัฒนา Technical
 management
Motivation.
skills
Human skills
ควรสารวจเนื้ อหาแต่ละทฤษฎี
 &Career
planning.
 อกศึ
Performance
feedback.
แล้วเลื
กษาเจาะลึกในทฤษฎี
ที่สนใจและคิดว่าจะสา
มารถนาไปใช้ให้เป็ นประโยชน์ต่อการบริ หารการศึกษา
หรื อการวิจยั ได้อย่างมีประสิ ทธิ ผล
Management Theory
14 Principles of Management
3 Dim. of Strategic Change
3C's Model of Kenichi Ohmae
7-S Framework of McKinsey
80-20 rule
Action Centred Leadership
Adam Smith Problem
ADL Matrix
Ansoff Matrix
Balanced Scorecard
BCG Matrix
Benchmarking
Benefit-Cost Analysis - BCA
Blue Ocean Strategy
Bricks and Clicks Model
Business Process Reengineering
Capability Maturity Model CMM
Clarkson Principles
Competitive Advantage
Competitive Advantage of
Nations
Core Competencies
Core Group Theory
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Cultural Dimensions
Delta Model
Deming Cycle
Deming's 14 Points
Diamond Model
DRIFT Theory
ERG Theory
Experience Curve
Extended marketing mix 7ps
Fiedler's Contingecy Model
Fishbone Diagram
Five Forces of Competition
Force Field Analysis
Game Theory
Gantt Chart
GE Matrix of McKinsey
Greiner Growth Curve
Hawtorne Effect
Ishikawa Diagram
Lewin's Leadership Styles
Linking Pin Model
M-Form Society
M-Shape Society
Management Gurus
Abraham Maslow
Adam Smith
Adrian Furnham
Alfred Chandler
Anthony Athos
Aristotle
Armand Feigenbaum
Art Kleiner
Bruce Henderson
Charles Babbage
Chester Barnard
Chris Argyris
Christopher Bartlett
Clayton P. Alderfer
Coimbatore Krishnarao Prahalad
Dale Carnegie
David Norton
Donald Schon
Douglas McGregor
Edwards Deming
Elton Mayo
Emerson Harrington
Emile Durkheim
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
Fred Edward Fiedler
Frederick Taylor
Gary Hamel
Geert Hofstede
Henri Fayol
Henry Gantt
Igor Ansoff
James Champy
James David Thompson
James MacGregor Burns
Jay Lorsch
Joan Woodward
Johannes M. Pennings
John Adair
Joseph Juran
Kaoru Ishikawa
Kenichi Ohmae
Kurt Lewin
Luther Gulick
Lyndall Urwick
Machiavelli
Mary Parker Follett
Max Weber
เอกสารประกอบการสอนรายวิชาทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษา
Management Theory
http://vectorstudy.com/
ASQ,. 2012
(กด Ctrl แล้ วคลิกเพื่อ download)
Management Topics
Autocratic Leadership
Bureaucratic Leadership
Business Intelligence
Change
Competitive Intelligence
Corporate Governance
Decentralisation
Democratic Leadership
Division of Labor
Fadapa
Force Field Analysis
Knowledge Management
Laissez Faire Leadership
Organizational Development
Manufacturing
Organizational Change
Project Management
Risk Management
Sources of Power
Social Change
Sustainable Development
Strategy Typology
Theories of Leadership
Types of Leadership
Types of Power
Voluntary Unpaid Overtime
Value Based Management
หน้ า 33
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Organizational Learning
Pareto Chart
Pareto Principle
PDCA
Porter's Five Forces
Porter's Competitive Strategies
POSDCORB
Product Market Grid
Quality Circles
Socratic Problem
Strategy Delta
Team Role Model
Theory U
Theory X and Y
Theory Z
Twelve Principles of Efficiency
Wealth of Nations
Weighing-Scale Approach
Meredith Belbin
Michael Hammer
Michael Porter
Paul Lawrence
Peter Blau
Peter Drucker
Philip Crosby
Rensis Likert
Robert K. Merton
Robert Kaplan
Robert Owen
Socrates
Sumantra Ghoshal
Sun Tzu
Tom Peters
Vilfredo Pareto
Warren Bennis
William Ouchi
Xenophon
เอกสารประกอบการสอนรายวิชาทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษา
หน้ า 34
ตาราเหล่านี ้มีอยูใ่ นห้ อ
งสมุด
ของหลักสูตรฯ
Educational Administration: Concepts and Practices.
5th edition, Frederick C. Lunenburg and Allan C. Ornstein.
http://books.google.co.th/books?id=ghDJXgwYPX8C&pg=PA1&hl=th&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION: CONCEPTS AND PRACTICES, Fifth
Edition is the best-selling, most comprehensive and most respected text of its kind. The
authors discuss all topics necessary for a complete understanding of educational
administration, balancing theory and research with practical coverage of culture, change,
curriculum, human resources administration, diversity, effective teaching strategies, and
supervision of instruction. Lunenburg and Ornstein include many exciting features to help
you learn, comprehend, and apply the material.
Contents
Development of Administrative Theory
Organizational Structure
Organizational Culture
Motivation
Leadership
ทฤษฎี administration เหล่านี้
Decision Making
เน้นการพัฒนา conceptual skills
Communication
ควรสารวจเนื้อหาแต่ละทฤษฎี
Organizational Change
School Finance and Productivity
แล้วเลือกศึกษาเจาะลึกในทฤษฎี
Legal Considerations and Education
ที่สนใจและคิดว่าจะสามารถนาไ
Curriculum Development and Implementation
ปใช้ให้เป็ นประโยชน์ต่อการบริ
Analyzing and Improving Teaching
Human Resources Administration
หารการศึกษาหรื อการวิจยั ได้อย่
Name Index
างมีประสิ ทธิผล
Subject Index
Case Index
The Federal and State Government and Education
Local School Districts
Educational Governance and Administration
th
6 edition Thomas J. Sergiovanni, Martin Burlingame, Fred S. Coombs, and Paul W.
Thurston
The sixth edition of "Educational Governance and Administration "provides a clear
and comprehensive introduction to school finance issues and schools as political systems. Its
case-based approach, descriptive studies of how schools work, and broad look at the
historical, political, social contexts that make up this area of study make this book a valuable
tool for every aspiring educator, policymaker, and citizen looking for an overview of the
current American educational system. "Educational Governance and Administration
"examines administrative practices with a critical eye and provides a balanced overview of
the development of educational administration, taking into account the roles of teachers,
students, principals, and superintendents. Extensively revised, the sixth edition contains a
completely updated and comprehensive discussion of policy and policy making, as well as
เอกสารประกอบการสอนรายวิชาทฤษฎีการบริ หารการศึกษา
หน้ า 35
the financial and legal challenges that school leaders face. It explores the expanding role of
the government in education and leadership, how schools work as political systems, and how
administrators balance local, state, and federal influences. New to This Edition
 Discussion of the complex and pervasive impacts of NCLB have been integrated
throughout the text.
 New, innovative, and student-friendly pedagogical features such as data, charts,
and graphs have been incorporated.
 Coverage of school law has been completely updated reflecting the most recent
and most important court decisions and their impact.
 New and comprehensive information on standards-based leadership and the
current controversy about administrative preparation has been added.
 New Chapter 7, Students Today, examines the evolving nature of today's students
and evaluates contemporary research on this subject.
"I have found no textbooks on the topic to be superior to this one. The authors have
distilled the essence of public school governance and administration and provided it to the
reader in a manner that demands his/her reflection. The content is well researched and well
presented. I plan on using the text in our program next fall and look forward to the new
edition." --Larry W. Brooks, Shenandoah University "This book and its earlier editions are all
classic texts for use in intro courses in our field. I'm glad to see a new edition on the horizon.
The addition of a recent practitioner on the writing team has vastly improved the focus of the
book." --John Daresh, University of Texas, El Paso "I think that the Sergiovanni
text...continues to offer the best overview of how schools are governed." --Judith
Zimmerman, Bowling Green State University
Contents:
1. The context for schooling in the United States
 Public values and school policy: the roots of conflict
 Issues shaping school policy and administration
 Demographics and the challenge to education in the united states
2. Introduction to educational administration
 Educational administration: an overview
 Educational administration as an emerging profession
 The development of thought in educational administration
 Theory the practice of educational administration
 Administrative, work, roles, and tasks
3. A cultural view of schooling and administration
เช่นกัน
 The everyday life of students and teachers in schools
 The everyday life of the school principal
 The everyday life of the school superintendent
4. Introduction to governance in education
 The school as a political organization
 Policy making in the local district
 The influence of the federal governance
 The new state role in education
5. Legal and financial considerations
 Public schools and law
 Legal considerations in public-school administration
 School finance: equitably funding schools for excellence
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Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and Practice
9th edition, Wayne K. Hoy, and Cecil G. Miskel
The leading text in its field, the sixth edition presents the most
comprehensive synthesis available of theory and research in
organizational behavior as it applies to the practice of Educational
Administration. It provides practitioners with the concepts and research
findings necessary to solve practical problems. Each theoretical
perspective concludes with an authentic case study which challenges
students to apply their knowledge to an actual contemporary school
problem.
Contents
1. The school as a social system
2. The technical core: learning and teaching
3. Structure in schools
4. Individual in schools
5. Culture and climate of schools
เช่นกัน
6. Power and politics in schools
7. External environments of schools
8. Effectiveness and quality of schools
9. Decision making in schools
10. Communication in schools
11. Leadership in schools
12. One last time: a review of the school as a social system
Educational Administration: A Problem–Based Approach
William C. Cunningham, and Paula A. Cordeiro
This new book reflects the current changes in educational administration. In a succinct and
well-written presentation, the book shares with readers the very latest thinking in the field and relates
it to significant real-life problems of practice. The book uses a problem-based approach and provides
readers with opportunities to analyze and apply their knowledge to authentic situations, including
multiple perspectives that challenge readers to synthesize the material into an effective administrative
platform and to make productive choices in arriving at problem solutions. It does not abandon the
social science, research and empirical tradition, but carefully examines moral, ethical, and behavioral
implications as well as critical thinking, best practice and field situated opportunities. "Educational
Administration" presents the major aspects of administration and the complex set of problems and
performance assessment challenges that administrators face every day. It emphasizes a number of
important challenges like the increasing diversity in our schools and society and the impact of reforms
and technology on learning environments. For anyone in educational administration.
Contents:
1. Administrative theory and leadership responsibility
2. Context and perspective for educational administrators
3. School reform
4. Cultural diversity and community relations
5. School district organizational structure and leadership
6. Successful school leadership
เช่นกัน
7. Moral and ethical dimensions of leadership
8. Program development, delivery, and assessment
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หน้ า 37
9. Pupil personnel services
Human resource management
ทฤษฎี Leadership ช่วยเสริ10.
ม (added
11. School and the law
on) ทฤษฎี management ให้12.
เข้มแข็
งขึ้น allocation and management
Resource
13. Problem-based learning projects
Leadership
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, last modified on 10 January 2013
Leadership has been described as “a process of social influence in which one person
can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task".[1] Other indepth definitions of leadership have also emerged.
Theories
Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal". The leader
may or may not have any formal authority. Students of leadership have produced theories
involving traits,[2] situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values,[3]
charisma, and intelligence, among others. Somebody whom people follow: somebody who
guides or directs others.
Early western history
The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has been ongoing for centuries.
History's greatest philosophical writings from Plato's Republic to Plutarch's Lives have
explored the question "What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this
search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership and the assumption that
leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that
leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the "trait theory of leadership".
The trait theory was explored at length in a number of works in the 19th century.
Most notable are the writings of Thomas Carlyle and Francis Galton, whose works have
prompted decades of research.[4] In Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identified the
talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. In Galton's Hereditary
Genius (1869), he examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After
showing that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when moving from first degree to
second degree relatives, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited. In other words,
leaders were born, not developed. Both of these notable works lent great initial support for
the notion that leadership is rooted in characteristics of the leader.
Rise of alternative theories
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, however, a series of qualitative reviews of these
studies (e.g., Bird, 1940;[5] Stogdill, 1948;[6] Mann, 1959[7]) prompted researchers to take a
drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant
literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of
studies, the overall evidence suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation may not
necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer
characterized as an enduring individual trait, as situational approaches (see alternative
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หน้ า 38
leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but
not others. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next
few decades.
Reemergence of trait theory
New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that
would ultimately reestablish the trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership.
For example, improvements in researchers' use of the round robin research design
methodology allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders across
a variety of situations and tasks.[8] Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed
researchers to conduct meta-analyses, in which they could quantitatively analyze and
summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to
create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the
qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed
the following:


Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.[8]
Significant relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits as:






intelligence[9]
adjustment[9]
extraversion[9]
conscientiousness[10][11][12]
openness to experience[11][13]
general self-efficacy[14][15]
While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not
been accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks.[16]
Specifically, Zaccaro (2007)[16] noted that trait theories still:
1. focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality traits, to the
neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problemsolving skills;
2. fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes;
3. do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable
over time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences;
4. do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity
necessary for effective leadership.
Attribute pattern approach
Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers have
begun to adopt a different perspective of leader individual differences—the leader attribute
pattern approach.[15][17][18][19][20] In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader attribute
pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of individual
characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated
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totality rather than a summation of individual variables.[19][21] In other words, the leader
attribute pattern approach argues that integrated constellations or combinations of individual
differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader
effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of
multiple attributes.
Behavioral and style theories
Main article: Managerial grid model
In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research
leadership as a set of behaviors, evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a
behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles.[22] David McClelland, for
example, posited that leadership takes a strong personality with a well-developed positive
ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential.[23]
A graphical representation of the managerial grid model
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on
the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the
performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In
each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group decision making, praise
and criticism (feedback), and the management of the group tasks (project management)
according to three styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.[24]
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The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests five different leadership styles, based on
the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.[25]
Positive reinforcement
B.F. Skinner is the father of behavior modification and developed the concept of
positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented
in response to a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future.[26] The
following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting.
Assume praise is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not
show up to work on time every day. The manager of this employee decides to praise the
employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time.
As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be
praised. In this example, praise (the stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee
because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being
praised for showing up to work on time.
The use of positive reinforcement is a successful and growing technique used by
leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as
Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement
to increase productivity.[27] Empirical research covering the last 20 years suggests that
reinforcement theory has a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many
reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher
performance for lower costs.
Situational and contingency theories
Main articles: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom–Yetton decision model, path–goal theory,
and situational leadership theory
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social
scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle
suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) (and Karl Marx) said that the times produce the person
and not the other way around.[28] This theory assumes that different situations call for
different characteristics; according to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic
profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when
acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he
functions."[29]
Some theorists started to synthesize the trait and situational approaches. Building
upon the research of Lewin et al., academics began to normalize the descriptive models of
leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying which situations each
style works better in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods
of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of followers in day-to-day management; the
democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building;
finally, the laissez-faire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides,
but as the leaders do not "take charge", they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or
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thorny organizational problems.[30] Thus, theorists defined the style of leadership as
contingent to the situation, which is sometimes classified as contingency theory. Four
contingency leadership theories appear more prominently in recent years: Fiedler contingency
model, Vroom-Yetton decision model, the path-goal theory, and the Hersey-Blanchard
situational theory.
The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader's effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler
called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and
situational favorability (later called situational control). The theory defined two types of
leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good relationships with the
group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task
itself (task-oriented).[31] According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and
relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation.
When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader
position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that taskoriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas
relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability.
Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973)[32] and later with Arthur
Jago (1988),[33] developed a taxonomy for describing leadership situations, which was used in
a normative decision model where leadership styles were connected to situational variables,
defining which approach was more suitable to which situation.[34] This approach was novel
because it supported the idea that the same manager could rely on different group decision
making approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later
referred to as situational contingency theory.[35]
The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert House (1971) and was
based on the expectancy theory of Victor Vroom.[36] According to House, the essence of the
theory is "the meta proposition that leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that
complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for
deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit
performance".[37] The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive,
participative, and supportive, that are contingent to the environment factors and follower
characteristics. In contrast to the Fiedler contingency model, the path-goal model states that
the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending
on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a contingency
theory, as it depends on the circumstances, and as a transactional leadership theory, as the
theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers.
The situational leadership model proposed by Hersey and Blanchard suggests four
leadership-styles and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the model posits
that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of follower-development. In this
model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader,
but of the characteristics of followers as well.[38]
Functional theory
Main article: Functional leadership model
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Functional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962; Adair,
1988; Kouzes & Posner, 1995) is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader
behaviors expected to contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues
that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of;
thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group
effectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al., 1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman
& Walton, 1986). While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team
leadership (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001), it has also been effectively applied to broader
organizational leadership as well (Zaccaro, 2001). In summarizing literature on functional
leadership (see Kozlowski et al. (1996), Zaccaro et al. (2001), Hackman and Walton (1986),
Hackman & Wageman (2005), Morgeson (2005)), Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006)
observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness.
These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities,
teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the group's
work.
A variety of leadership behaviors are expected to facilitate these functions. In initial
work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman (1953) observed that subordinates perceived
their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as consideration and
initiating structure. Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective
relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or
acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the
leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification,
setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards.
Integrated psychological theory
Main article: Three Levels of Leadership model
The Integrated Psychological theory of leadership is an attempt to integrate the
strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while
addressing their limitations, largely by introducing a new element – the need for leaders to
develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others and behavioral flexibility by
practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the
philosophies of servant leadership and “authentic leadership”.[39]
Integrated Psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James
Scouller’s Three Levels of Leadership model (2011).[40] Scouller argued that the older
theories offer only limited assistance in developing a person’s ability to lead effectively.[41]
He pointed out, for example, that:



Traits theories, which tend to reinforce the idea that leaders are born not made, might
help us select leaders, but they are less useful for developing leaders.
An ideal style (e.g. Blake & Mouton’s team style) would not suit all circumstances.
Most of the situational/contingency and functional theories assume that leaders can
change their behavior to meet differing circumstances or widen their behavioral range
at will, when in practice many find it hard to do so because of unconscious beliefs,
fears or ingrained habits. Thus, he argued, leaders need to work on their inner
psychology.
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
None of the old theories successfully address the challenge of developing “leadership
presence”; that certain “something” in leaders that commands attention, inspires
people, wins their trust and makes followers want to work with them.
Scouller therefore proposed the Three Levels of Leadership model, which was later
categorized as an “Integrated Psychological” theory on the Businessballs education
website.[42] In essence, his model summarizes what leaders have to do, not only to bring
leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and
psychologically as leaders.
The three levels in his model are Public, Private and Personal leadership:


The first two – public and private leadership – are “outer” or behavioral levels. These
are the behaviors that address what Scouller called “the four dimensions of
leadership”. These dimensions are: (1) a shared, motivating group purpose; (2) action,
progress and results; (3) collective unity or team spirit; (4) individual selection and
motivation. Public Leadership focuses on the 34 behaviors involved in influencing
two or more people simultaneously. Private Leadership covers the 14 behaviors
needed to influence individuals one to one.
The third – personal leadership – is an “inner” level and concerns a person’s growth
toward greater leadership presence, knowhow and skill. Working on one’s personal
leadership has three aspects: (1) Technical knowhow and skill (2) Developing the
right attitude toward other people – which is the basis of servant leadership (3)
Psychological self-mastery – the foundation for authentic leadership.
Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing one’s leadership presence,
building trusting relationships with followers and dissolving one’s limiting beliefs and habits,
thereby enabling behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to
one’s core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders’ development, he
introduced a new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of
self-mastery.[43]
Transactional and transformational theories
Main articles: Transactional leadership and Transformational leadership
Eric Berne[44] first analyzed the relations between a group and its leadership in terms of
transactional analysis.
The transactional leader (Burns, 1978)[45] is given power to perform certain tasks and
reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead
the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in
exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct, and train
subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level, and reward effectiveness when
expected outcome is reached. Idiosyncrasy Credits, first posited by Edward Hollander (1971)
is one example of a concept closely related to transactional leadership.
Emotions
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Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions
entwined with the social influence process.[46] In an organization, the leader's mood has some
effects on his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels:[47]
1. The mood of individual group members. Group members with leaders in a positive
mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a
negative mood. The leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the
mechanism of emotional contagion.[47] Mood contagion may be one of the
psychological mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers.[48]
2. The affective tone of the group. Group affective tone represents the consistent or
homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate
of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group
level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive
affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood.[47]
3. Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy. Public
expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people
experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals,
intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions
of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be
good. The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in
ways that are reflected in the group processes.[47]
In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the
leader improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other
findings.[49]
Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and
negative emotions at work. The leader creates situations and events that lead to emotional
response. Certain leader behaviors displayed during interactions with their employees are the
sources of these affective events. Leaders shape workplace affective events. Examples –
feedback giving, allocating tasks, resource distribution. Since employee behavior and
productivity are directly affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider
employee emotional responses to organizational leaders.[50] Emotional intelligence, the ability
to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others, contributes to effective
leadership within organizations.[49]
Neo-emergent theory
Main article: Functional leadership model
The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford school of leadership) espouses
that leadership is created through the emergence of information by the leader or other
stakeholders, not through the true actions of the leader himself. In other words, the
reproduction of information or stories form the basis of the perception of leadership by the
majority. It is well known that the great naval hero Lord Nelson often wrote his own versions
of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England he would receive a
true hero's welcome.[citation needed] In modern society, the press, blogs and other sources report
their own views of a leader, which may be based on reality, but may also be based on a
political command, a payment, or an inherent interest of the author, media, or leader.
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Therefore, it can be contended that the perception of all leaders is created and in fact does not
reflect their true leadership qualities at all.
Styles
Main article: Leadership styles
A leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans, and
motivating people. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader.
Rhetoric specialists have also developed models for understanding leadership (Robert
Hariman, Political Style,[51] Philippe-Joseph Salazar, L'Hyperpolitique. Technologies
politiques De La Domination[52]).
Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is
little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly
more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be
most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of
expertise, a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style adopted
should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing
the interests of its individual members.[53]
Engaging style
Engaging as part of leadership style has been mentioned in various literature earlier.
Dr. Stephen L. Cohen, the Senior Vice President for Right Management’s Leadership
Development Center of Excellence, has in his article Four Key Leadership Practices for
Leading in Tough Times has mentioned Engagement as the fourth Key practice. He writes,
"these initiatives do for the organization is engage both leaders and employees in
understanding the existing conditions and how they can collectively assist in addressing
them. Reaching out to employees during difficult times to better understand their concerns
and interests by openly and honestly conveying the impact of the downturn on them and their
organizations can provide a solid foundation for not only engaging them but retaining them
when things do turn around.[54]
Engagement as the key to Collaborative Leadership is also emphasized in several
original research papers and programs.[55] Becoming an agile has long been associated with
Engaging leaders - rather than leadership with an hands off approach.[56]
Autocratic or authoritarian style
Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in
the leader, as with dictators.
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Leaders do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The
autocratic management has been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It
permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps
each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the
group.[53]
Participative or democratic style
The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making
abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by
practicing social equality.
Laissez-faire or free-rein style
A person may be in a leadership position without providing leadership, leaving the
group to fend for itself. Subordinates are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and
methods.
Narcissistic leadership
Main article: Narcissistic leadership
Narcissistic leadership is [Definition missing]. It is a common leadership style. The narcissism may
range from anywhere between healthy and destructive.
Toxic leadership
Main article: Toxic leader
A toxic leader is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an
organization, and who abuses the leader–follower relationship by leaving the group or
organization in a worse-off condition than when he/she joined it.
Performance
In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on
organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about
leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Despite these assertions, however, it is largely recognized
and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research
supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord,
1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). To facilitate successful performance it is important to
understand and accurately measure leadership performance.
Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to
organizational success (Campbell, 1990). Campbell identified a number of specific types of
performance dimensions; leadership was one of the dimensions that he identified. There is no
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consistent, overall definition of leadership performance (Yukl, 2006). Many distinct
conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership performance,
including outcomes such as leader effectiveness, leader advancement, and leader emergence
(Kaiser et al., 2008). For instance, leadership performance may be used to refer to the career
success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader
emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While these
aspects may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the
applied or research focus.
The ontological–phenomenological model for leadership
One of the more recent definitions of leadership comes from Werner Erhard, Michael
C. Jensen, Steve Zaffron, and Kari Granger who describe leadership as “an exercise in
language that results in the realization of a future that wasn’t going to happen anyway, which
future fulfills (or contributes to fulfilling) the concerns of the relevant parties…”. This
definition ensures that leadership is talking about the future and includes the fundamental
concerns of the relevant parties. This differs from relating to the relevant parties as
“followers” and calling up an image of a single leader with others following. Rather, a future
that fulfills on the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties indicates the future that
wasn’t going to happen is not the “idea of the leader”, but rather is what emerges from
digging deep to find the underlying concerns of those who are impacted by the leadership.[57]
Contexts
Organizations
An organization that is established as an instrument or means for achieving defined
objectives has been referred to as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are
subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections,
positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. Thus, the formal organization is
expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members.
According to Weber's definition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority.
Employees receive a salary and enjoy a degree of tenure that safeguards them from the
arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher one's position in the
hierarchy, the greater one's presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the
course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic
structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative
subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their
position.[58]
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges
within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure. The
informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual
membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal
organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that
generally characterize human life — the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations
as ends in themselves.
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In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance,
protection, and survival. Now humanity spends a major portion of waking hours working for
organizations. The need to identify with a community that provides security, protection,
maintenance, and a feeling of belonging has continued unchanged from prehistoric times.
This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.[59][60]
Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal
qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract
followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the
authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence
or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of
persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a
person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.[59]
A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. It is
not dependent on title or formal authority. (Elevos, paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis, and
Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar.) Ogbonnia (2007) defines an effective leader "as an
individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be viewed as
meeting the expectations of an organization or society." Leaders are recognized by their
capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist.[61] An
individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce
obedience by virtue of the authority of their position. However, she or he must possess
adequate personal attributes to match this authority, because authority is only potentially
available to him/her. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be
confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge her/his role in the organization and
reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of
formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize
this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority.[59]
Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every
organization needs leaders at every level.[62]
Management
Over the years the philosophical terminology of "management" and "leadership" have,
in the organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated
meanings. Debate is fairly common about whether the use of these terms should be restricted,
and generally reflects an awareness of the distinction made by Burns (1978) between
"transactional" leadership (characterized by e.g. emphasis on procedures, contingent reward,
management by exception) and "transformational" leadership (characterized by e.g. charisma,
personal relationships, creativity).[45]
Group leadership
In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group
leadership. In this situation, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole.
Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing
costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much
in team performance. In some situations, the team members best able to handle any given
phase of the project become the temporary leaders. Additionally, as each team member has
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the opportunity to experience the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds
the cycle of success.[63]
Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination, and synergistic
communication skills will bring out the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use their
own inner mentors to energize their team and organizations and lead a team to achieve
success.[64]
According to the National School Boards Association (USA):[65]
These Group Leaderships or Leadership Teams have specific characteristics:
Characteristics of a Team



There must be an awareness of unity on the part of all its members.
There must be interpersonal relationship. Members must have a chance to contribute,
and learn from and work with others.
The members must have the ability to act together toward a common goal.
Ten characteristics of well-functioning teams:










Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why the team exists and are invested in
accomplishing its mission and goals.
Priorities: Members know what needs to be done next, by whom, and by when to
achieve team goals.
Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks done and when to allow a more
skillful member to do a certain task.
Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are clearly understood.
Conflict: Conflict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making
and personal growth.
Personal traits: members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well
utilized.
Norms: Group norms for working together are set and seen as standards for every one
in the groups.
Effectiveness: Members find team meetings efficient and productive and look forward
to this time together.
Success: Members know clearly when the team has met with success and share in this
equally and proudly.
Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating skills are provided and taken
advantage of by team members.
Self-leadership
Self-leadership is a process that occurs within an individual, rather than an external
act. It is an expression of who we are as people.[66]
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Primates
Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of
Leadership present evidence of leadership in nonhuman animals, from ants and bees to
baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and
that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can be found in other social
species, too.[67] Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, in Demonic Males: Apes and the
Origins of Human Violence, present evidence that only humans and chimpanzees, among all
the animals living on Earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence,
territoriality, and competition for uniting behind the one chief male of the land.[68] This
position is contentious. Many animals beyond apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence,
and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting
Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical. However, we must examine other
species as well, including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female),
meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal), and many others.
By comparison, bonobos, the second-closest species-relatives of humans, do not unite
behind the chief male of the land. The bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking
female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the
strongest male. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then
among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective
leadership. However, not all scientists agree on the allegedly peaceful nature of the bonobo or
its reputation as a "hippie chimp".[2]
Historical views
Sanskrit literature identifies ten types of leaders. Defining characteristics of the ten
types of leaders are explained with examples from history and mythology.[69]
Aristocratic thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's "blue blood" or
genes. Monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions
against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction (see the divine right of
kings). Contrariwise, more democratically-inclined theorists have pointed to examples of
meritocratic leaders, such as the Napoleonic marshals profiting from careers open to talent.
In the autocratic/paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of
leadership of the Roman pater familias. Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may object to
such models as patriarchal and posit against them emotionally-attuned, responsive, and
consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with matriarchies.
Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on "right living"
relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed
by a tradition of filial piety.
Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and
discipline . . . Reliance on intelligence alone results in rebelliousness. Exercise of
humaneness alone results in weakness. Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on the
strength of courage results in violence. Excessive discipline and sternness in command result
in cruelty. When one has all five virtues together, each appropriate to its function, then one
can be a leader. — Sun Tzu[70]
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In the 19th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept of
leadership into question. (Note that the Oxford English Dictionary traces the word
"leadership" in English only as far back as the 19th century.) One response to this denial of
élitism came with Leninism, which demanded an élite group of disciplined cadres to act as
the vanguard of a socialist revolution, bringing into existence the dictatorship of the
proletariat.
Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between
secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have recurred and had their
detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on leadership has often emphasized
stewardship of divinely-provided resources—human and material—and their deployment in
accordance with a Divine plan. Compare servant leadership.
For a more general take on leadership in politics, compare the concept of the
statesperson.
Leadership myths
Leadership, although largely talked about, has been described as one of the least
understood concepts across all cultures and civilizations. Over the years, many researchers
have stressed the prevalence of this misunderstanding, stating that the existence of several
flawed assumptions, or myths, concerning leadership often interferes with individuals’
conception of what leadership is all about (Gardner, 1965; Bennis, 1975).[71][72]
Leadership is innate
According to some, leadership is determined by distinctive dispositional
characteristics present at birth (e.g., extraversion; intelligence; ingenuity). However, it is
important to note that leadership also develops through hard work and careful observation.[73]
Thus, effective leadership can result from nature (i.e., innate talents) as well as nurture (i.e.,
acquired skills).
Leadership is possessing power over others
Although leadership is certainly a form of power, it is not demarcated by power over
people – rather, it is a power with people that exists as a reciprocal relationship between a
leader and his/her followers (Forsyth, 2009).[73] Despite popular belief, the use of
manipulation, coercion, and domination to influence others is not a requirement for
leadership. In actuality, individuals who seek group consent and strive to act in the best
interests of others can also become effective leaders (e.g., class president; court judge).
Leaders are positively influential
The validity of the assertion that groups flourish when guided by effective leaders can
be illustrated using several examples. For instance, according to Baumeister et al. (1988), the
bystander effect (failure to respond or offer assistance) that tends to develop within groups
faced with an emergency is significantly reduced in groups guided by a leader.[74] Moreover,
it has been documented that group performance,[75] creativity,[76] and efficiency [77] all tend to
climb in businesses with designated managers or CEOs. However, the difference leaders
make is not always positive in nature. Leaders sometimes focus on fulfilling their own
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agendas at the expense of others, including his/her own followers (e.g., Pol Pot; Josef Stalin).
Leaders who focus on personal gain by employing stringent and manipulative leadership
styles often make a difference, but usually do so through negative means.[78]
Leaders entirely control group outcomes
In Western cultures it is generally assumed that group leaders make all the difference
when it comes to group influence and overall goal-attainment. Although common, this
romanticized view of leadership (i.e., the tendency to overestimate the degree of control
leaders have over their groups and their groups’ outcomes) ignores the existence of many
other factors that influence group dynamics.[79] For example, group cohesion, communication
patterns among members, individual personality traits, group context, the nature or
orientation of the work, as well as behavioral norms and established standards influence
group functionality in varying capacities. For this reason, it is unwarranted to assume that all
leaders are in complete control of their groups' achievements.
All groups have a designated leader
Despite preconceived notions, not all groups need have a designated leader. Groups
that are primarily composed of women,[80][81] are limited in size, are free from stressful
decision-making,[82] or only exist for a short period of time (e.g., student work groups; pub
quiz/trivia teams) often undergo a diffusion of responsibility, where leadership tasks and
roles are shared amongst members (Schmid Mast, 2002; Berdahl & Anderson, 2007;
Guastello, 2007).
Group members resist leaders
Although research has indicated that group members’ dependence on group leaders
can lead to reduced self-reliance and overall group strength,[73] most people actually prefer to
be led than to be without a leader (Berkowitz, 1953).[83] This "need for a leader" becomes
especially strong in troubled groups that are experiencing some sort of conflict. Group
members tend to be more contented and productive when they have a leader to guide them.
Although individuals filling leadership roles can be a direct source of resentment for
followers, most people appreciate the contributions that leaders make to their groups and
consequently welcome the guidance of a leader (Stewart & Manz, 1995).[84]
Action-oriented environments
One approach to team leadership examines action-oriented environments, where
effective functional leadership is required to achieve critical or reactive tasks by small teams
deployed into the field. In other words, there is leadership of small groups often created to
respond to a situation or critical incident.
In most cases these teams are tasked to operate in remote and changeable
environments with limited support or backup (action environments). Leadership of people in
these environments requires a different set of skills to that of front line management. These
leaders must effectively operate remotely and negotiate the needs of the individual, team, and
task within a changeable environment. This has been termed action oriented leadership.
Some examples of demonstrations of action oriented leadership include extinguishing a rural
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fire, locating a missing person, leading a team on an outdoor expedition, or rescuing a person
from a potentially hazardous environment.
Titles emphasizing authority
At certain stages in their development, the hierarchies of social ranks implied
different degrees or ranks of leadership in society. Thus a knight led fewer men in general
than did a duke; a baronet might in theory control less land than an earl. See peerage for a
systematization of this hierarchy, and order of precedence for links to various systems.
In the course of the 18th to 20th centuries, several political operators took nontraditional paths to become dominant in their societies. They or their systems often expressed
a belief in strong individual leadership, but existing titles and labels ("King", "Emperor",
"President", and so on) often seemed inappropriate, insufficient, or downright inaccurate in
some circumstances. The formal or informal titles or descriptions they or their subordinates
employ express and foster a general veneration for leadership of the inspired and autocratic
variety. The definite article when used as part of the title (in languages that use definite
articles) emphasizes the existence of a sole "true" leader.
Critical thought
Noam Chomsky[85] and others[86] have brought critical thinking to the very concept of
leadership and have provided an analysis that asserts that people abrogate their responsibility
to think and will actions for themselves. While the conventional view of leadership is rather
satisfying to people who "want to be told what to do", these critics say that one should
question why they are being subjected to a will or intellect other than their own if the leader
is not a Subject Matter Expert (SME).
The fundamentally anti-democratic nature of the leadership principle is challenged by
the introduction of concepts such as autogestion, employeeship, common civic virtue, etc.,
which stress individual responsibility and/or group authority in the work place and elsewhere
by focusing on the skills and attitudes that a person needs in general rather than separating
out leadership as the basis of a special class of individuals.
Similarly, various historical calamities are attributed to a misplaced reliance on the
principle of leadership.
Varieties of individual power
According to Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H. Charnov, the ability to attain these
unique powers is what enables leadership to influence subordinates and peers by controlling
organizational resources. The successful leader effectively uses these powers to influence
employees, and it is important for leaders to understand the uses of power to strengthen their
leadership.
The authors distinguish the following types of organizational power:

Legitimate Power refers to the different types of professional positions within an
organization structure that inherit such power (e.g. Manager, Vice President, Director,
Supervisor, etc.). These levels of power correspond to the hierarchical executive
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levels within the organization itself. The higher positions, such as president of the
company, have higher power than the rest of the professional positions in the
hierarchical executive levels.

Reward Power is the power given to managers that attain administrative power over
a range of rewards (such as raises and promotions). Employees who work for
managers desire the reward from the manager and will be influenced by receiving it as
a result of work performance.

Coercive Power is the manager's ability to punish an employee. Punishment can be
mild, such as a suspension, or serious, such as termination.

Expert Power is attained by the manager due to his or her own talents such as skills,
knowledge, abilities, or previous experience. A manager who has this power within
the organization may be a very valuable and important manager in the company.

Charisma Power: a manager who has charisma will have a positive influence on
workers, and create the opportunity for interpersonal influence.

Referent Power is a power that is gained by association. A person who has power by
association is often referred to as an assistant or deputy.

Information Power is gained by a person who has possession of important
information at an important time when such information is needed to organizational
functioning.[87]
See also
Other types and theories
Agentic leadership
Charismatic authority
Trait leadership
Coaching
Collaborative leadership
Constitutional economics
Cross-cultural leadership
Cultural hegemony
Ethical leadership
Führerprinzip
Goal orientation
Idiosyncrasy credit
Innovation leadership
Leader–member exchange theory
Leadership development
Outstanding leadership theory
Political economy
Rule according to higher law
Servant leadership
Substitutes for Leadership Theory
Three Levels of Leadership model
Youth leadership
Contexts
Alpha (biology)
Big man (anthropology)
Chieftain
Entrepreneur
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Hero
Minister
Priest
Scout leader
Supreme Leader
Related articles
Crowd psychology
Nicomachean Ethics
Professional development
Three theological virtues
Leadership accountability
Leadership school
Leadership studies
Meeting Roles
Modes of leadership
References
Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
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social climates". Journal of Social Psychology: 271–301.
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Further reading
Adair, J. (1988). Effective Leadership. London. Pan Books. ISBN 978-0330504195
Antonakis, John, Cianciolo, Anna T., & Sternberg, Robert J. (2004). The Nature of Leadership, Sage
Publications, Inc.
Argyris, C. (1976) Increasing Leadership Effectiveness, Wiley, New York, 1976 (even though published in
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อีกข้ อเขียนหนึง่
Theories of Leadership
http://vectorstudy.com/management-topics/theories-of-leadership
VectorStudy.com, July 28th, 2012
Leadership has been described as the "process of social influence in which one
person is able to enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common
task" [1]. A definition more inclusive of followers comes from Alan Keith of Genentech who
said “Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making
something extraordinary happen.” [2] Students of leadership have produced theories
involving traits [3], situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values [4],
charisma, and intelligence among others.
Trait Theory
Trait theory tries to describe the types of behavior and personality tendencies
associated with effective leadership. This is probably the first academic theory of leadership.
Ronald Heifetz (1994) traces the trait theory approach back to the nineteenth-century
tradition of associating the history of society to the history of great men.[5] Thomas Carlyle
can be considered one of the pioneers of the trait theory. In On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and
the Heroic History (1841) he used such approach to identify the talents, skills and physical
characteristics of men who arose to power.
Proponents of the trait approach usually list leadership qualities, assuming certain
traits or characteristics will tend to lead to effective leadership. Shelley Kirkpatrick and
Edwin A. Locke (1991) exemplify the trait theory. They argue that "key leader traits include:
drive (a broad term which includes achievement, motivation, ambition, energy, tenacity, and
initiative), leadership motivation (the desire to lead but not to seek power as an end in itself),
honesty, integrity, self-confidence (which is associated with emotional stability), cognitive
ability, and knowledge of the business. According to their research, "there is less clear
evidence for traits such as charisma, creativity and flexibility".[3]
Criticism to Trait Theory
Although trait theory has an intuitive appeal, difficulties may arise in proving its
tenets, and opponents frequently challenge this approach. The "strongest" versions of trait
theory see these "leadership characteristics" as innate, and accordingly labels some people as
"born leaders" due to their psychological makeup. On this reading of the theory, leadership
development involves identifying and measuring leadership qualities, screening potential
leaders from non-leaders, then training those with potential.
Situational theory
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Situational theory appeared as an alternative to the trait theory of leadership. Social
scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle
suggested. Herbert Spencer suggested in 1884 that the times produce the person and not the
other way around.[6] This theory assumes that different situations call for different
characteristics. According to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile
of a leader exists. The situational leadership model of Hersey and Blanchard, for example,
suggest four leadership-styles and four levels of follower-development. For effectiveness, the
model posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of followershipdevelopment. In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the
characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well. Other situational
leadership models introduce a variety of situational variables. These determinants include:
o the nature of the task (structured or routine)
- organizational policies, climate, and culture
- the preferences of the leader's superiors
- the expectations of peers
- the reciprocal responses of followers
o The contingency model of Vroom and Yetton uses other situational variables,
including:
- the nature of the problem
- the requirements for accuracy
- the acceptance of an initiative
- time-constraints
- cost constraints
The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader's effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler
called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style and
situational favorableness (later called "situational control").
In the path-goal model of leadership, developed jointly by Martin Evans and Robert
House and based on the "Expectancy Theory of Motivation", a leader has the function of
clearing the path toward the goal(s) of the group, by meeting the needs of subordinates.
Functional Theory
Functional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962) is a
particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to
organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader�s main job is to see
that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have
done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion
(Fleishman et al., 1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986). While
functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership (Zaccaro,
Rittman, & Marks, 2001), it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational
leadership as well (Zaccaro, 2001). In summarizing literature on functional leadership (see
Kozlowski et al. (1996), Zaccaro et al. (2001), Hackman and Walton (1986), Hackman &
Wageman (2005), Morgeson (2005)), Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006) observed five
broad functions a leader provides when promoting unit effectiveness. These functions
include: (1) environmental monitoring, (2) organizing subordinate activities, (3) teaching and
coaching subordinates, (4) motivating others, and (5) intervening actively in the group's
work.
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A variety of leadership behaviors are expected to facilitate these functions. In initial
work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman (Fleishman, 1953) observed that subordinates
perceived their supervisors behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as
consideration and initiating structure. Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering
effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a
subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the
actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role
clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those
standards.
Behavior Theory
However one determines leadership behavior, one can categorize it into various
leadership styles. Many ways of doing this exist. For example, the Managerial Grid Model, a
behavioral leadership-model, suggests five different leadership styles, based on leaders'
strength of concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.
David McClelland saw leadership skills, not so much as a set of traits, but as a
pattern of motives. He claimed that successful leaders will tend to have a high need for
power, a low need for affiliation, and a high level of what he called activity inhibition (one
might call it self-control).
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and R. K. White identified three leadership styles:
authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire, based on the amount of influence and power
exercised by the leader. Other leadership styles have been identified as discussed below.
The bureaucratic leader (Weber, 1905)[7] is very structured and follows the
procedures as they have been established. This type of leadership has no space to explore new
ways to solve problems and is usually slow paced to ensure adherence to the ladders stated by
the company. Leaders ensure that all the steps have been followed prior to sending it to the
next level of authority. Universities, hospitals, banks and government usually require this
type of leader in their organizations to ensure quality, increase security and decrease
corruption. Leaders who try to speed up the process will experience frustration and anxiety.
The charismatic leader (Weber, 1905)[7] leads by infusing energy and eagerness
into their team members. This type of leader has to be committed to the organization for the
long run. If the success of the division or project is attributed to the leader and not the team,
charismatic leaders may become a risk for the company by deciding to resign for advanced
opportunities. It takes the company time and hard work to gain the employees' confidence
back with other type of leadership after they have committed themselves to the magnetism of
a charismatic leader.
The autocratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939)[8] is given the power to
make decisions alone, having total authority. This leadership style is good for employees that
need close supervision to perform certain tasks.
The democratic leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939)[8] This style involves the
leader including one or more employees in the decision making process (determining what to
do and how to do it). However, the leader retains the final decision making authority. Using
this style is not a sign of weakness, rather it is a sign of strength that your employees will
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respect. This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your employees
have other parts. Note that a leader is not expected to know everything — this is why you
employ knowledgeable and skillful employees. Using this style is of mutual benefit — it
allows them to become part of the team and allows you to make better decisions.
The laissez-faire ("let do") leader (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939)[8] In this style,
the leader allows the employees to make the decisions. However, the leader is still
responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees are able to analyze
the situation and determine what needs to be done and how to do it. You cannot do
everything! You must set priorities and delegate certain tasks. This is not a style to use so that
you can blame others when things go wrong, rather this is a style to be used when you fully
trust and confidence in the people below you. Do not be afraid to use it, however, use it
wisely!
The people-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967)[9] is the one who, in order to comply
with effectiveness and efficiency, supports, trains and develops his personnel, increasing job
satisfaction and genuine interest to do a good job.
The task-oriented leader (Fiedler, 1967)[9] focuses on the job, and concentrates on
the specific tasks assigned to each employee to reach goal accomplishment. This leadership
style suffers the same motivation issues as autocratic leadership, showing no involvement in
the teams needs. It requires close supervision and control to achieve expected results.
Another name for this is deal maker (Rowley & Roevens, 1999)[10] and is linked to a first
phase in managing Change, enhance, according to the Organize with Chaos approach.
The servant leader (Greenleaf, 1977)[11] facilitates goal accomplishment by
giving its team members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is an
instrument employees use to reach the goal rather than a commanding voice that moves to
change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic leadership, tends to achieve
the results in a slower time frame than other styles, although employee engagement is higher.
The transactional leader (Burns, 1978)[12] is given power to perform certain tasks
and reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to
lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in
exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train
subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when
expected outcome is reached.
The transformational leader (Burns, 1978)[12] motivates its team to be effective
and efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the
final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of
command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing to
be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas
that move the organization to reach the company's vision.
The environment leader ( Carmazzi, 2005)[13] is the one who nurtures group or
organizational environment to affect the emotional and psychological perception of an
individual's place in that group or organization. An understanding and application of group
psychology and dynamics is essential for this style to be effective. The leader uses
organizational culture to inspire individuals and develop leaders at all levels. This leadership
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style relies on creating an education matrix where groups interactively learn the fundamental
psychology of group dynamics and culture from each other. The leader uses this psychology,
and complementary language, to influence direction through the members of the inspired
group to do what is required for the benefit of all. Leadership styles of "outstanding leaders"
In 1994 House and Podsakoff attempted to summarize the behaviors and approaches
of "outstanding leaders" that they obtained from some more modern theories and research
findings. These leadership behaviors and approaches do not constitute specific styles, but
cumulatively they probably characterize the most effective style of leaders/managers of the
time. The listed leadership "styles" cover:
1. Vision. Outstanding leaders articulate an ideological vision congruent with the
deeply-held values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers
have an alleged moral right.
2. Passion and self-sacrifice. Leaders display a passion for, and have a strong
conviction of, what they regard as the moral correctness of their vision. They engage in
outstanding or extraordinary behavior and make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of
their vision and mission.
3. Confidence, determination, and persistence. Outstanding leaders display a high
degree of faith in themselves and in the attainment of the vision they articulate. Theoretically,
such leaders need to have a very high degree of self-confidence and moral conviction because
their mission usually challenges the status quo and, therefore, may offend those who have a
stake in preserving the established order.
4. Image-building. House and Podsakoff regard outstanding leaders as selfconscious about their own image. They recognize the desirability of followers perceiving
them as competent, credible, and trustworthy.
5. Role-modeling. Leader-image-building sets the stage for effective role-modeling
because followers identify with the values of role models whom they perceived in positive
terms.
6. External representation. Outstanding leaders act as spokespersons for their
respective organizations and symbolically represent those organizations to external
constituencies.
7. Expectations of and confidence in followers. Outstanding leaders communicate
expectations of high performance from their followers and strong confidence in their
followers' ability to meet such expectations.
8. Selective motive-arousal. Outstanding leaders selectively arouse those motives of
followers that the outstanding leaders see as of special relevance to the successful
accomplishment of the vision and mission.
9. Frame alignment. To persuade followers to accept and implement change,
outstanding leaders engage in "frame alignment". This refers to the linkage of individual and
leader interpretive orientations such that some set of followers' interests, values, and beliefs,
as well as the leader's activities, goals, and ideology, becomes congruent and complementary.
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10. Inspirational communication. Outstanding leaders often, but not always,
communicate their message in an inspirational manner using vivid stories, slogans, symbols,
and ceremonies.
Even though these ten leadership behaviors and approaches do not really equate to
specific styles, evidence has started to accumulate that a leader's style can make a difference.
Style becomes the key to the formulation and implementation of strategy and plays an
important role in work-group members� activity and in team citizenship. Little doubt exists
that the way (style) in which leaders influence work-group members can make a difference in
their own and their people's performance.
(Adopted from: Robert House and Philip M. Podsakoff, "Leadership Effectiveness:
Past Perspectives and Future Directions for Research" in Greenberg, Jerald ed.),pp. 45-82
Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science, Hillsdale, NJ, England: Erlbaum
Associates, Inc, 1994. x, 312 pp..)
Leadership and Emotions
Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions
entwined with the social influence process[14]. In an organization, the leaders mood has
some effects on his group. These effects can be described in 3 levels[15]:
1. The mood of individual group members. Group members with leaders in a
positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a
negative mood.The leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the
mechanism of mood contagion[15].Mood contagion may be one of the psychological
mechanisms by which charismatic leaders influence followers[16].
2. The affective tone of the group. Group affective tone represents the consistent or
homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the
moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of
analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do
groups with leaders in a negative mood [15].
3. Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and task strategy.Public
expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and
express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes
through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders
signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good.The group members respond to
those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes
[15].
In research about client service it was found that expressions of positive mood by
the leader improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were another
findings[17].
Beyond the leader's mood, his behavior is a source for employee positive and
negative emotions at work. The leader creates situations and events that lead to emotional
response. Certain leader behaviors displayed during interactions with their employees are the
sources of these affective events. Leaders shape workplace affective events. Examples
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feedback giving, allocating tasks, resource distribution. Since employee behavior and
productivity are directly affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider
employee emotional responses to organizational leaders[18]. Emotional intelligence, the
ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others, contributes to
effective leadership in organizations[17].
Leadership and Vision
Many definitions of leadership involve an element of Goal management|vision �
except in cases of involuntary leadership and often in cases of traditional leadership. A vision
provides direction to the influence process. A leader or group of leaders can have one or more
visions of the future to aid them to move a group successfully towards this goal. A vision, for
effectiveness, should allegedly:
-
appear as a simple, yet vibrant, image in the mind of the leader
describe a future state, credible and preferable to the present state
act as a bridge between the current state and a future optimum state
appear desirable enough to energize followers
succeed in speaking to followers at an emotional or spiritual level (logical
appeals by themselves seldom muster a following)
For leadership to occur, according to this theory, some people "leaders" must
communicate the vision to others "followers" in such a way that the followers adopt the
vision as their own. Leaders must not just see the vision themselves, they must have the
ability to get others to see it also. Numerous techniques aid in this process, including:
narratives, metaphors, symbolic actions, leading by example,incentives, and
penalty|penalties.
Stacey (1992) has suggested that the emphasis on vision puts an unrealistic burden
on the leader. Such emphasis appears to perpetuate the myth that an organization must
depend on a single, uncommonly talented individual to decide what to do. Stacey claims that
this fosters a culture of dependency and conformity in which followers take no pro-active
incentives and do not think independently.
Kanungo's charismatic leadership model describes the role of the vision in three
stages that are continuously ongoing, overlapping one another. Assessing the status quo,
formulation and articulation of the vision, and implementation of the vision.
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership#Theories_of_leadership
1. Chemers, M. M. (2002). Cognitive, social, and emotional intelligence of transformational leadership: Efficacy
and Effectiveness. In R. E. Riggio, S. E. Murphy, F. J. Pirozzolo (Eds.), Multiple Intelligences and
Leadership.}
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5. Heifetz, R. (1994). Leadership without easy answers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674-51858-6
6. Spencer, H. (1884) The Study of Sociology
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9781852525613.
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Related Links
Fred Edward Fiedler
Types of Leadership
Democratic Leadership
Lewin’s Leadership Styles
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Bureaucratic Leadership
Autocratic Leadership Style
Laissez Faire Leadership
Action Centred Leadership
James MacGregor Burns
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Educational Leadership
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_leadership
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, last modified on 14 August 2012
School leadership is the process of enlisting and guiding the talents and energies of
teachers, pupils, and parents toward achieving common educational aims. This term is often
used synonymously with educational leadership in the United States and has supplanted
educational management in the United Kingdom. Several universities in the United States
offer graduate degrees in educational leadership.[1]
History
The term school leadership came into currency in the late 20th century for several
reasons. Demands were made on schools for higher levels of pupil achievement, and schools
were expected to improve and reform. These expectations were accompanied by calls for
accountability at the school level. Maintenance of the status quo was no longer considered
acceptable. Administration and management are terms that connote stability through the
exercise of control and supervision. The concept of leadership was favored because it
conveys dynamism and pro-activity. The principal or school head is commonly thought to be
the school leader; however, school leadership may include other persons, such as members of
a formal leadership team and other persons who contribute toward the aims of the school.
While school leadership or educational leadership have become popular as
replacements for educational administration in recent years, leadership arguably presents
only a partial picture of the work of school, division or district, and ministerial or state
education agency personnel, not to mention the areas of research explored by university
faculty in departments concerned with the operations of schools and educational institutions.
For this reason, there may be grounds to question the merits of the term as a catch-all for the
field. Rather, the etiology of its use may be found in more generally and con-temporarily
experienced neo-liberal social and economic governance models, especially in the United
States and the United Kingdom. On this view, the term is understood as having been
borrowed from business.
In the United States, the superintendency, or role of the chief school administrator,
has undergone many changes since the creation of the position which is often attributed to the
Buffalo Common Council that approved a superintendent on June 9, 1837. If history serves
us correctly, the superintendency is about 170 years old with four major role changes from
the early 19th century through the first half of the 20th century and into the early years of the
21st century. Initially, the superintendent's main function was clerical in nature and focused
on assisting the board of education with day-to-day details of running the school. At the turn
of the 20th century, states began to develop common curriculum for public schools with
superintendents fulfilling the role of teacher-scholar or master educator who had added an
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emphasis on curricular and instructional matters to school operations. In the early 20th
century, the Industrial Revolution affected the superintendent's role by shifting the emphasis
to expert manager with efficiency in handling non-instructional tasks such as budget,
facility,and transportation. The release of A Nation at Risk in 1983 directly impacted public
school accountability and, ultimately, the superintendency. The early 1980s initiated the
change that has continued through today with the superintendent viewed as chief executive
officer, including the roles of professional adviser to the board, leader of reforms, manager of
resources and communicator to the public.
Graduate studies
The term "educational leadership" is also used to describe programs beyond schools.
Leaders in community colleges, proprietary colleges, community-based programs, and
universities are also educational leaders.
Some United States university graduate masters and doctoral programs are organized
with higher education and adult education programs as a part of an educational leadership
department. In these cases, the entire department is charged with educating educational
leaders with specific specialization areas such as university leadership, community college
leadership, and community-based leadership (as well as school leadership). Some United
States graduate programs with a tradition of graduate education in these areas of
specialization have separate departments for them. The area of higher education may include
areas such as student affairs leadership, academic affairs leadership, community college
leadership, community college and university teaching, vocational and adult education and
university administration.
Literature, Research and Policy
Educational leadership draws upon interdisciplinary literature, generally, but ideally
distinguishes itself through its focus on pedagogy, epistemology and human development. In
contemporary practice it borrows from political science and business. Debate within the field
relates to this tension.
A number of publications and foundations are devoted to studying the particular
requirements of leadership in these settings, and educational leadership is taught as an
academic discipline at a number of universities.
Several countries now have explicit policies on school leadership, including policies
and budgets for the training and development of school leaders.
In the USA, formal "Curriculum Audits" are becoming common, which allow
recognized educational leaders and trained auditors to evaluate school leadership and the
alignment of the curriculum with the goals and objectives of the school district. Curriculum
audits and curriculum mapping were developed by Fenwick W. English in the late 1970s. The
educational leaders and auditors who conduct the audits are certified by Phi Delta Kappa.
Notes
^ Educational Leadership Graduate Programs and Graduate Schools
References
Carter, G.R. & Cunningham, W.G.(1997) The American school superintendent: Leading in an age of
pressure.San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Waters, J.T. & Marzano, R.J. (2006) School district leadership that works. Denver, CO: Mid-continental
Research for Education and Learning.
Further reading
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Con hance, P.L. & Chance, E.W. (2002). Introduction to Educational Leadership & Organizational Behavior:
Theory Into Practice. New York: Eye Education.
External links
Infusing Management Tasks with Instructional Leadership by Dr. Angie McQuaig
Quality Educational Leadership for the 21st Century
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and
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Robertson, J.
(2008). Coaching
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