Three Theories on Bilingualism
Cummins’ Approaches
Goals
• Review theories on bilingualism
• Apply theories to classroom
Theories
• Common Underlying Proficiency
• Threshold Theory
• Developmental Interdependence Theory
Common Underlying
Proficiency
• Refers to what is commonly known as
balance proficiencies, but takes it one
step further (Baker, 1997)
Common Underlying
Proficiency
• Language attributes are not apart in the
cognitive system, but transfer readily
and are interactive.
• Lessons learned in one language can
readily transfer into the other language.
Common Underlying
Proficiency
The Iceberg Analogy
L1 Surface Features
L2 Surface Features
Surface Level
Common Underlying Proficiency
Central Operating System
Common Underlying
Proficiency
• Separate Underlying Proficiency (SUP)
VS
• Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP)
Common Underlying
Proficiency
Parts
• The thoughts that accompany talking, reading,
writing and listening come from the same central
engine. There is on integrated source of thought.
• People have the capacity to store easily many
languages, and can also function in many languages
with ease.
• Information processing skills and educational
attainment may be developed through two
languages. Cognitive functioning and school
achievement may be fed through any channel, they
feed from the same central processor
Common Underlying
Proficiency
• The language used in the classroom needs to be
sufficiently well developed to be able to process the
cognitive challenges in the classroom.
• Speaking, listening, reading or writing any of the
languages helps the whole cognitive system to
develop. However, if made to operate in an
insufficiently developed language, the system will not
function at its best. Operating in a poorly
developed L2, will result in poor quality and quantity
of what they learn in complex curriculum materials.
Oral and written form may appear weak and
impoverished.
Common Underlying
Proficiency
• When one or both languages are not
functioning fully cognitive functioning
and academic performance may be
negatively affected.
Thresholds Theory
• The further the child moves toward balanced
bilingualism, the greater the likelihood of
cognitive advantages.
• There are two thresholds or levels of
language competence that has consequences
for a child.
• Limits which children will be likely to obtain
cognitive benefits from bilingualism.
• Suggests that there are children who may
derive detrimental consequences from their
bilingualism.
Thresholds Theory
• First threshold is level to reach to avoid
negative consequences of bilingualism.
• Second threshold is a level required to
experience the possible benefits of
bilingualism.
Thresholds Theory
Balanced Bilinguals
Second Threshold
Less Balanced Bilinguals
First Threshold
Limited Bilinguals
L1
L2
Thresholds Theory
• Balanced Bilinguals
• Age-appropriate competence in both languages
• Positive cognitive advantages
• Less Balanced Bilinguals
• Age-appropriate competence in one language
• Unlikely positive or negative advantages
• Limited Biinguals
• Low levels of competence in both languages
• Likely negative cognitive consequences
What are cognitive
consequences
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•
Coping with curriculum materials
Processing information
Deductive reasoning
Metalinguistic awareness (analysis of
linguistic knowledge and control of
linguistic processing)
Problems with theory
• Defining level of language proficiency
necessary to
• avoid negative effects
• obtain positive advantages
Developmental Interdependence
Hypothesis
• Suggests that child’s second language
competence is partly dependent on the level
of competence already achieved in the first
language
• The more developed the first language, the
easier it will be to develop a second language
• When the first language is at a low stage of
evolution, the more difficult the achievement
of bilingualism will be.
Language skills required for
education
• Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)
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Context embedded
Comprehension
Speaking
Pronunciation
Vocabulary
Grammar
•
•
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•
Context reduced
Analysis
Synthesis
Meanings
Creative Compositions
• Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
BICS/CALP
Conversational Proficiency
Cognitive Processes
Language Proficiency
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Surface
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Pronunciation
Vocabulary
Grammar
Semantic Meaning
Functional Meaning
Cognitive/Academic Proficiency
Limitations
• Different dimensions to language
• Moving from one dimension requires evolving,
dynamic, interacting and intricate, not a
dichotomy
• Lack of empirical support, difficult to
operationalize
• Terms BICS and CALP may oversimplify
• Relationship between language development
and cognitive development is not simple.
Other factors affect them.
BICS/CALP
• Helps explain child failure in the
schools.
Cognitive Undemanding
Quadrant
1
Quadrant
2
Context Embedded
Communication
Context Reduced
Communication
Quadrant
3
Quadrant
4
Cognitively Demanding Comm
BICS/CALP
Two Dimensions
1.
Amount of contextual support available to a
student
• Context embedded Communication
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Pointing to objects
Using the eyes
Head nods
Hand gestures
Intonation
Context reduced communication
•
Few cues to meaning transmitted
BICS/CALP
Two Dimensions
2. Level of cognitive demands required in
communication
•
Cognitive demanding communication
•
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Much information at a challenging level needs
processing quickly
Cognitive undemanding communication
•
Person has the mastery of languages skills
sufficient to enable easy communication.
Quadrants
• Q1
• Surface fluency or basic interpersonal
communication skills – BICS
• L2 Develops independently from L1 surface
fluency
• Q4
• Language that is cognitive and
academically more advanced – CALP
• Develops interdependent and can be
promoted by either or both languages
Length of time to develop
BICS
CALP
Curriculum Relevance I
Page 156
Curriculum Relevance II
Page 157
Curriculum Relevance III
• Page 158