Unit 8
Developing
high performance
work force
through
employee
motivation
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Unit
8
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
 Understand the meaning of motivation;
 Appreciate the different employee needs and expectations;
 Understand the impact of frustration induced behaviour;
 Explain the basic concepts of and different approaches to motivation; and
 Understand the more common motivation theories (Maslow Hierarchy of
Needs Theory, Mc Gregor’s Theory X and Theory Y, Alderfer’s ERG Theory,
Herzberg’s Hygiene Motivator Theory, McClelland’s Achievement Theory,
Expectancy Theories, Adams’s Equity Theory and Locke’s Goal Setting
Theory.
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Unit
8
Introduction
The relationship between the organisation and its
members is governed by what motivates them to work
and the fulfillment they derive from it. …. The manager
must understand the nature of human behaviour and
how best to motivate staff so that they work willingly
and effectively.
Laurie Mullins
University of Portsmouth
Unit
8
What is Motivation ?
The willingness to exert high levels of effort
towards organisational goals, conditioned by
the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual
need
(Adapted from Stephen P Robbins; Organisational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies,
Applications; 7th Edition; Prentice Hall International; 1996
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8
Simplified Motivational Model
Needs or
expectations
results in
feedback
to achieve
Driving force
(Behaviour or actions)
Desired
Goals
which provides
Fulfilment
(Adapted from Stephen P Robbins; Organisational Behaviour: Concepts, Controversies, Applications;
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7th Edition; Prentice Hall International; 1996
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8
Keys to Motivating employees
 Understanding needs and expectations at work
 Understanding negative behaviour (frustration)
and its impact
 Understanding the different approaches to
motivation
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8
Categorisation of Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
(tangible rewards)
(psychological rewards)
Issues such as salary, benefits,
security, promotion, contract of
service, work environment,
conditions of work, etc
Issues such as opportunity to
use one’s ability, positive
recognition, sense of
challenge, receiving
appreciation, being treated in a
caring manner, etc
Largely outside control of
individual managers
Within control of
individual managers
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Needs and Expectations at Work
Instrumental orientation
(concerned with other things)
Economic rewards
such as Pay, fringe benefits,
material goods, pension, security
etc
Personal orientation
(concerned with oneself)
Intrinsic satisfaction
Derived from nature of work, interest in
Job, personal growth and
development
Relational orientation
(concerned with other people)
Social Relationships
Issues such as friendship, desire
for affiliation, status, dependency,
group working, etc
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Unit
8
Basic Frustration Model
Needs or
expectations
Desired goals
Problem solving
(Removal of barrier)
Restructuring
Alternative goal
(Compromise)
Frustration
Aggression
Regression
Fixation
Withdrawal
Constructive
behaviours
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8
Factors Affecting Frustration
 Level and potency of need
(Eg Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Degree of attachment to the particular goal
 Strength of motivation
 Perceived nature of barrier or blocking agent
 Personality characteristics of the individual
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8
Frustration Induced behaviour – Workplace Examples (1)
Aggression
Target - Perceived source of barrier
Acts - Physical/ Verbal attack on supervisor, verbal abusive
language, destruction of equipment / document, Malicious
gossip against superior
Displaced Agression
Target - Not source of barrier but anyone regarded as weak
Acts - Picking argument with colleagues, short tempered with
subordinates
Regression
Reverting to childish or primitive form of behaviour such as crying,
sulking, throwing tantrums
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8
Frustration Induced behaviour – Workplace Examples (2)
Fixation
Persisting in a form of behaviour that has no adaptive value and
continuing to repeat actions that have no positive value such as
inability to accept change or new idas, repeatedly trying a machine
that does not work, or applying for promotion even though not
qualified
Withdrawal
Giving up or resignation such as arriving late at work or leaving early,
sickness and absenteeism, refusal to accept responsibility, avoiding
decision making, passing work to colleagues
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8
Frustration Reducing Techniques
Your role as a Manager is to reduce frustration vide: Effective recruitment and selection
 Training and Development
 Job design and work organisation
 Equitable personnel policies
 Recognition and rewards
 Effective communication
 Participative style of management
 Understanding the individual’s perception
of the situation
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Changing concepts of Motivation
 Economic Needs Motivation
Based on the works of Taylor who believed that workers would be motivated by
obtaining the highest possible wages by working in the most efficient manner
 Social concept of motivation
Based on the beliefs of human relations writers who argue that workers go to work to
satisfy not only the need for money but a range of different needs and thus is concerned
with the interactions between both psychological factors and social factors, needs and
demands of people and structural and technical requirements of organisation.
 Concept of Self – Actualisation
Based on the Hawthorne experiments, argues that greater attention must be paid to the
content and meaning of work to make it more satisfying
 Complex- person concept of motivation
Takes the view that there are a large number of variables that influence organisational
performance and that managers must vary their behaviour according to the situation and
different needs of employees
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8
Overview of main motivation theories
Early ideas on work motivation
Scientific management and the work of F W Taylor
Hawthorne experiments and Human Relations Approach
Content Theories (What Motivates)
Emphasis on what motivates individuals
* Maslow * Alderfer * Herzberg * McClelland
Process Theories (How it motivates)
Emphasis on the actual process of motivation
* Expectancy Theories * Equity Theory * Goal Theory * Attribution Theory
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8
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (1)
 Original theory published in 1943
 Argues that people are wanting beings, always want more and
what they want depends on what they have
 Argues that need are arranged in series of level or hierarchy of
importance, with lower level needs (physiological and Safety)
being satisfied externally and the higher level needs being
satisfied internally
 Argues that when one need becomes substantially satisfied, the
next need becomes dominant
 Workplace impact: First find out what level employee is in and
focus on satisfying that or higher need
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8
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (2)
Internal esteem factors such as selfrespect, autonomy, and achievement and
external esteem factors such as status,
recognition and attention
SELF
ACTUALISATION
Security and protection
from physical and
emotional harm, freedom
from pain
Drive to become what one is
capable of becoming: includes
growth, achieving one’s potential
and self-fulfilment
Affection, belongingness,
acceptance and friendship
ESTEEM
LOVE / SOCIAL
SAFETY
Physiological
PHYSIOLOGICAL
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Satisfaction of hunger and thirst, shelter, sensory pleasures (sex) and other bodily needs
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Mc Gregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
 Argues that a manager’s behaviour towards an employee is based on his
assumptions about the nature of human beings
 Proposes two distinctive types of human beings, Theory X (negative) and
Theory Y (positive)
Theory X
• Inherently dislike work and wherever possible will try to avoid
• Must be coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment to achieve goals
• Will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction wherever possible
• Place security above all other factors and display little ambition
Theory X
• View work as being natural as rest or play
• Will exercise self-discretion and self-control if committed to objectives
• Average person can learn to accept or even seek responsibility
• Ability to make innovative decisions is not sole province of managers but is widely dispersed
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throughout organisation
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8
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 Modification of Maslow’s Theory, which condenses Maslow’s 5
levels of needs into 3 levels, namely Existence, Relatedness and
Growth
 Unlike Maslow, argues that lower level needs need not be satisfied
before a higher level need emerges
 Argues that an individual is motivated to satisfy one or more basic
needs and that if a person’s need at a particular level is blocked,
attention should be focused on satisfying needs at other levels
 Illustration : If growth needs are blocked due to limited promotion
opportunities, then provide greater opportunities to satisfy existence
and relatedness
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Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Theory
 Argues that job performance is determined by employee’s attitude towards
job
 Argues that factors leading to job satisfaction is distinct from that leading to
job dissatisfaction
 Hygiene factors : Factors that are related to job context, extrinsic to the job
and which are concerned with job environment. If present serve to prevent
dissatisfaction. Eg: Salary, job security, working conditions, level and
quality of supervision, company policy and administration, Interpersonal
relations, etc
 Motivators : Factors that are related to the job content itself (Intrinsic) which
when present serve to motivate employees to superior effort and performance.
Example: Sense of achievement, recognition, responsibility, nature of work,
personal growth and advancement, etc
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8
Linking Maslow, ERG and 2 factor Tehory
Needs Hierarchy
Theory
ERG
Theory
SelfActualization
Growth
Esteem
Belongingness
Hygiene
factors
Relatedness
Safety
Motivators
Existence
Physiological
Herzberg’s
2 Factor Theory
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8
Mc Clelland’s Theory of Needs
 Argues that a person’s personality characteristic (the need to
achieve) plays a major role in job performance. Argues that
people have three major needs, namely achievement, power
and affiliation
 Need for Achievement: The drive to excel, to achieve in
relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. The desire for
challenging and risky goals
 Need for Power : Desire to control one’s environment i.e the need to
make others behave in a way they would not have behaved
otherwise.
 Need for affiliation : Desire for friendly and close relationships, to
seek approval, to conform, to avoid conflict and to try to project a
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favourable self - image
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8
Expectancy Theories (1)
 Common theories : Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, Porter and Lawler
Expectancy Model and Lawler’s Revised Expectancy Model
 Basic Philosophy : The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed
by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual
 Argues that motivation is a function of the perceived relationship
between effort and perceived level of performance with the
expectation that the performance will lead to rewards
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Unit
8
Expectancy Theories (2)
Three essential relationships
Effort – Performance Relationship
Perception of individual that certain amount of effort will lead to
performance
Performance – Reward Relationship
Degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular
level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome
Rewards – Personal Goals Relationship
Degree to which organisational rewards satisfy individual’s personal
goals or needs and the attractivness of those potential rewards for the
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individual
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Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1)
 Model is based on 3 key variables, namely Valence, Instrumentality
and Expectancy
 Argues that people prefer certain outcomes from their behaviour
over others and if the preferred outcome is achieved, then there will
be satisfaction
 Expectancy = Perceived probability that effort will lead to first
level outcome
 Instrumentality = Extent to which 1st level outcomes will lead to
second level outcomes
 Valence = Attractiveness of a particular outcome to the individual
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Model of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (2)
Expectancy
Perceived probability
that effort will lead to
1st level outcomes
Instrumentality
Extent to which 1st
Level outcomes lead to
2nd level outcomes
High Wages
Promotion
Effort Expended
(Motivational force)
Level of
Performance
High
Productivity
Praise from
superiors
Friendship of
Co-workers
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Unit
8
Model of Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory (1)
Perceived
equitable
rewards
Abilities
And
traits
Value of
reward
Intrinsic
rewards
Effort
Performance
Accomplishment
Satisfaction
Extrinsic
rewards
Perceived
Effort – Reward
probability
Role
perceptions
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Unit
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Model of Porter and Lawler’s Expectancy Theory (2)
Value of reward
Similar to valence. Value placed on reward depends on strength of its
desirability
Perceived effort
- Reward probability
Similar to expectancy. Refers to a person’s expectation that certain
outcomes are dependent on a given amount of effort
Effort
Amount of effort expended is dependent upon the interaction of value of
reward and perception of that effort-reward relationship
Abilities & Traits
Effort also influenced by individual characteristics.
Role perceptions
The way in which individuals view their work and the roles they should
adopt. Influences the direction and level of action necessary for effective
performance
Performance
Depends not only on amount of effort but also other factors such as skills ,
role perception, etc
Rewards
Desirable outcomes. Both monetary and non-monetary such as feeling of
achievement, responsibility, etc
Perceived equitable
rewards
Level of rewards people feel that they should fairly receive for a given
standard of performance
Satisfaction
An attitude, An individual’s state of mind that is derived from actual rewards
received and perceived level of rewards for a given standard of
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performance
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8
Lawler’s Revised Expectancy Model
E----------- P
Expectancies
P--------- O
Expectancies
Need related
outcomes
Outcomes
Performance
Outcomes
Effort
Outcomes
Performance
Outcomes
E – P expectancy : Person’s perception of the probability that a given
amount of effort will result in intended behaviour
P – O Expectancy: Person’s perception of the probability that a given level of
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performance will lead to particular need related outcomes
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Generic Collaborative Goal Setting Model
Relate organisational and individual goals to employee
(To help employees see how their work contributes to the vision
Ask for input
(To ensure that goals are clear, relevant and set at an appropriate level)
Discuss goals
(To assess level of difficulty and resources needed)
Summarise to ensure clarity and commitment
(To make sure goals are clearly understood and there is agreement not only on
the goal but also on the support required, milestones, etc)
Express your confidence and support
(To convey a sense of challenge and excitement and to impress the impact that
achievement would make to the organisation as a whole)
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Effective Goal Setting Theory
Specific
Relevant
Challenging
Commitment
Participation
Feedback
Task
Effort
Task
Performance
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8
Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance
Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance
Task Performance
High
Low
Area of
Optimal
Goal
Difficulty
Moderate
Challenging
Goal Difficulty
Impossible
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Conclusion
The relationship between an organisation and its
employee is governed by what motivates the
employee to superior performance. It is extremely
important that managers understand the nature of
human behaviour and how best to motivate staff so
that they work willingly and effectively
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Unit
8
Next Unit
Fundamentals of Individual behaviour
Values, attitudes and Job satisfaction
42