Investigation 3 – How Successful Was Chiang Kaishek’s government?
What sort of question are you likely to be asked on Chiang Kaishek’s Government in Nanjing?
‘’To what extent did Jiang Jieshi’s (Chiang Kaishek’s) government address the problems facing
China in the period 1927-37?’’ May 2010
To answer this question on THE SUCCESSES AND FAILURES OF CHIANG KAISHEK’S/JIANG JIESHI’S GOVERNMENT
you will need to
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Read ‘first evidence’, pages 8-13 in the Brooman book.
Come up with your own theories or hypothesis (possible answers) and ways to organise the evidence you’ve just read. If
you’ve really no clue then look for exemplar essays.
THEORY – Chiang Kaishek became Kuomintang leader after the death of Sun Yatsen. The question directs us to look at
problems facing China and to look at what Jiang Jieshi’s government did about these problems. Problems included
economic imperialism by foreign powers, a split and conflict with the CCP, undeveloped industry, problems with the
economy and land ownership. Perhaps Chiang had success in some areas but not in others?
ANALYSIS – To help us properly assess the extent to which the actions of C.K.’S government were a success/failure we
could measure against what they were trying to do in the immediate and in the long term. Can the problems facing China
be connected to the long-term aims of the Kuomintang? (Kuomintang aims were nationalism, democracy and livelihood
(or socialism).
Perhaps we could analyse the evidence by dividing it into 3; problems with Nationalism inc. imposition from Japan,
problems with government inc. CCP split and problems with peoples’ livelihood. Or might it be easier to divide the
evidence into key themes such as ‘economic’, ‘social’ and ‘political’?
Next we should look for further evidence (the Lynch book or other articles given to you in class) to see how well the
Kuomintang dealt with these problems in their immediate circumstances creating a foundation on which their full aims
could be achieved.
METHOD
Examine the following pieces of evidence/textbook narrative.
1. Read the first set of evidence cards and decide which way to divide them into categories
Here are two suggested ways of doing this –
(It’s a good idea to trial both before you decide finally on a way to categorise)
 Into 3 - Those to do with China’s international standing (NATIONALISM), those to do with
government (DEMOCRACY), those to do with people’s livelihood (SOCIALISM).
 Into 3 - Those to do with the ENONOMY, those to do with SOCIETY and those to do with
POLITICS/MILITARY.
Remember you don’t have to use EACH piece of evidence!
2. Now consider how the Kuomintang tried to resolve these problems. Cut up your second set of
evidence cards and match the actions to the problems you have already categorised.
3. Lastly add the outcomes. You could Colour/highlight the positive outcomes in one colour and the
negative in a different colour.
4. Make a judgement on the extent to which Kuomintang aims were met and problems resolved.
5. Write out a full plan for this essay.
Evidence Analysis
‘’To what extent did Jiang Jieshi’s (Chiang Kaishek’s) government address the problems facing
China in the period 1927-37?’’ May 2010
Evidence Cards Set 1- Problems
After Yuan Shikai’s failed attempt at ruling and the
1916-28 warlord era the power of central
government had been drastically reduced. The
warlord period had also created general disunity
and distress.
Arguably European colonialism or Westernisation
was also a cause of the struggle for China to
modernise.
Infrastructure and communication between regions
was severely lacking.
Even in provinces that were theoretically under his
rule, Chiang K. did not always have real control
because of the existence of large gangs of bandits
which terrorised whole districts and existed by
looting, kidnapping and theft.
Rural poverty was rife. Rural income of a normal
Chinese person was $26 per year, which was spent
on rent and payments on debt.
By 1927 the Japanese had a stranglehold on
Manchuria’s economy. They controlled all its most
important mines, railways, factories and ports.
The alliance between the Communists and the
Guomindang broke down in 1927 and the
Communists were thrown out of the big cities with
great bloodshed. The survivors of these massacres
retreated to the countryside, most of them to
Jiangxi province where they set up a ‘Chinese Soviet
Republic’, the Jiangxi Soviet.
Since the Han dynasty the Chinese economy had
been a market economy. Most of the national
output consisted of agricultural products produced
by family farms and the majority of the population
were peasants.
A rural elite of rich landowners exploited the
peasants. Land rent could be as high as 50 – 70 % of
crop yield.
The KMT was heavily factionalised into pro and antiChiang groups.
China, despite boasting a civilization spanning about
5,000 years, struggled to modernize. The process of
modernization in China was a long and painful one,
involving many wars, uprisings, rebellions and
revolution.
Since KMT party membership was a requirement for
civil service positions, the KMT was full of careerists
and opportunists.
In 1931 the Japanese army invaded and occupied
Manchuria. The League of Nations did not take any
military action against Japan.
By 1928 Chiang had not by any means united China
under his rule. He had only managed to conquer the
North with the help of the local warlords and they
never fully accepted his authority.
In 1937 the Sino-Japanese War took place.
Evidence Cards Set 2 – Actions
Measures to improve the quality and availability of
education were implemented.
In the military arena the government of Chiang
Kaishek fought three different enemies at once!
The warlords, the Communists and the Japanese
were all opponents.
The government set up encirclement campaigns to
exterminate the communists between 1930 and
1934.
Government subsidies were provided to help the
Chinese film industry, based mainly in Shanghai,
which became internationally renowned. Similar
government support enabled fashion houses in
Shanghai to compete with Paris and Milan.
The government provided no real welfare, health
or social service. 5000 doctors had to attend 450
million people with the assistance of only 1700
nurses and the availability of only 30,000 hospital
beds.
A National Resources Commission was set up to
develop Chinese industry and negotiate foreign
trade deals.
Resistance in the Sino-Soviet war was given by
Chiang Kai-shek’s nationalist army, over half a
million men. The Japanese under General Matsui
committed over 200,000 men. The Japanese were
better trained, better equipped and supported by
a powerful airforce.
Chinese banks were brought under the control of the
Bank of China.
The nationalist government's during the Nanjing
Decade fittingly based its foreign policy on
nationalism, one of Sun Yat Sen's three principles.
Schemes were adopted to improve urban transport
and communication systems. The postal and
telegraph systems were improved and expanded.
Modern buses and trams appeared on the streets of
major cities The first airline was established during
the Nanjing decade and over 25000 kilometres of
railway was constructed. A ferry system was
established in Nanking.
Inefficiency in the army led to the Xian incident
where a warlord Zhang Xue Liang and one of Chiang’s
own officers arrested him and held him until he
agreed to a Second United Front!
The opium trade was brought under government
control and restrictions were imposed on organised
gambling rings in cities such as Shanghai.
Chiang fought to regain control over Feng Yuxiang
and Yan Xishan two warlords who had rebelled so
from ’29 to ’31 China suffered a bloody and violent
Civil War.
China’s civil service (rank of government employees)
was modernised by the creation of special
administrative departments and training colleges.
Evidence Cards Set 3 – Outcomes
Economic developments were not very successful.
Most developments that were made were
concentrated only in the urban areas. Tax
collection was corrupt and inefficient.
Basically, China reclaimed her sovereignty during
this time.
The party lost support as a result of the
encirclement campaigns. The people of China did
not like the idea of fighting each other while their
country was being
Although most of the warlords were defeated
during the Northern Expedition of 1926-1928 a
few remained such as Zhang Xue Liang, Feng
Yuxiang and Yan Xishan. These warlords retained
considerable local authority.
China recovered many foreign concessions during
this time, and Britain granted tariff autonomy to
China in 1928. China recovered all of its territories
except Hong Kong, which remained with the
British until 1997.
KMT focus on the Communists had led them to
neglect social and economic reform
Because of Allied assistance the Japanese forces
surrendered unconditionally ending the Sino-J War. .
Despite some notable diplomatic achievements in
treaty revision, the performance of the National
Government in the sphere of foreign relations was
weak
Rural income was still low and land rent continued to
be high.
The unequal treaties and other unfair policies
implemented by foreign governments were removed
as a result of the government's nationalist policies.
Due to Guerilla Warfare The Communists defeated
the government’s encirclement campaigns. The end
of the last campaign led to communists marching
over 11 provinces in what became known as ‘The
Long March’. This was a military success for the KMT
as they had made the Communists retreat
Shortly after the Sino-Japanese war, the Nationalist
government become unpopular due to growing
support for the communist party, and after four years
of conflict against the government, the CCP gained
control of China in 1949.
During the Sino-Japanese Chinese which began in
1937 relations seemed to improve with the West.
China became popular once Japan was defeated in
1945, and China's position in the world improved
remarkably. invaded.
Don’t forget you don’t have to use each piece of evidence you see here and you can add more evidence
of your own.
Questions to consider to help you plan your conclusion…..
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Were the KMT’s achievements insignificant?
Did they make any headway in modernising the country?
Were government officials in the Nationalist Government fair or corrupt?
Were reforms uniform or did rural or urban areas receive more/less attention?
Was the military successful?
Did Chiang maintain the KMT’S ruling position successfully by military power and/or social
revolution?
Did Chiang’s government foster the support of the peasants?
The KMT was heavily factionalized into pro- and anti-Chiang groups. The largest faction in the party
following reunification was the pro-Chiang Whampoa clique (a.k.a. the National Revolutionary Army First
Army Group/Central Army), which made up slightly over half of the party membership. A Whampoa subfaction was the infamous Blue Shirts Society. Next was the CC Clique, a pro-Chiang civilian group. A third
group, the technocratic Political Study Clique, was more liberal than the other two pro-Chiang factions.
They were formed by KMT members of the first National Assembly back in 1916. These three factions
competed with each other for Chiang's favor.
Opposition to Chiang came from both the left and the right. The leftist opposition was led by Wang Jingwei
and known as the Reorganizationists. The rightist opposition was led by Hu Hanmin. Hu never created or
joined a faction but he was viewed as the spiritual leader by the Western Hills faction, led by Lin Sen. There
were also individuals within the party who were not part of any faction, like Sun Fo. These anti-Chiang
figures were outnumbered in the party but held great power by their seniority, unlike many pro-Chiang
cadres that joined only during or after the Northern Expedition. Chiang cleverly played these factions off
against one another. The party itself was reduced to a mere propaganda machine, while real power laid with
Chiang and the National Revolutionary Army (NRA).
State of the Chinese Economy in the 20s
In the first half of the 20th Century while China was going through revolutions, political instability and wars, the
economy continued to function and develop. It was essentially a market economy as it had been since at least the
Han dynasty. Most of national output consisted of agricultural products produced by family farms and the majority of
the population were peasants.
An excellent study Chinese Farm Economy (the University of Chicago Press, 1930) by professor John L. Buck of the
University of Nanking is based on surveying 2866 farms in seventeen localities of China in the 1920s. The survey
includes a total farm area of 21,000 acres and a rural population of approximately 17,000 persons. It provides
information on the economics of the farm business, including capital investment, receipts, expenses and profits, farm
ownership and tenancy, labor cost and efficiency, demographic characteristics of farm families, food consumption and
the standard of living.
According to Buck (pp. 423-425), "farm land is [was] generally worked by owners, although approximately one-fifth is
farmed by tenants and another one-fifth by part owners, ... The production from the farm business in China and in the
United States is remarkably equal in quantity per unit of land… In the United States the chief means has been the use
of capital as well as labor; in China it has been the use of labor, for the most part human labor, and with very little
capital…The Chinese farmer has by the trial and error method arrived at many sound and practicable conclusions for
his situation. His crops are often suited to the soil, and his cropping systems follow the general principle of rotation
remarkably well…The small size of business and the crowded population led necessarily to a standard of living that is
low when compared to the standard of the western farmer… Diet, while remarkable in containing many of the
elements needed for health and strength, lacks variety mainly in fruits and vegetables, particular in North China. The
direct utilization of grains and to a certain extent of soybeans, however, is probably a more economical procedure than
the western way of using so much food largely through animals."
Along with agriculture, handicraft industry and trade were parts of the traditional Chinese market economy. After the
Western impact, modern industries and financial institutions began to emerge. Factories producing consumer goods
such as textile, wool and leather products, toys, tobacco and paper products were operating by 1920 if not before,
especially in Shanghai, Tianjin and other coastal cities. The governments in power did succeed to some extent in
building infrastructure, including railroads, highways and seaports. Telephone lines and telegraph network were built.
Electric power supplies became available in major cities. In addition to the old-fashioned banks, new commercial
banks were established and functioned as modern banks in taking deposits and extending loans for business working
capital and investment. By 1920, the Bank of China and the Bank of Communications were the two largest banks
which issued currency, while numerous commercial banks existed in various cities. A stock market in Shanghai was
trading actively in the 1930s. Private life insurance companies were operating. The education system improved,
through government effort and private initiative, with help from foreign friends, including missionaries. Private
universities coexisted with state universities sponsored by the central government and provincial governments.
2. Economic Lesson from the Period 1911-1949
What important economic lesson can be learned from reviewing briefly the history of the first three decades of the
Republic of China? In spite of political instability economic activities were carried on and economic development took
place between 1911 and 1937. Modern economic institutions evolved naturally in a market economy. The
resourcefulness of the Chinese people and their desire and energy to make a better living were sufficient to improve
the economy once they were given some freedom and opportunity to do so. In short modernization was taking place.
China had a well-functioning market economy, although it was still a poor country except for some coastal cities. The
important economic lesson is that market economic institutions combined with Chinese human capital are sufficient for
rapid economic development provided that there is sufficient political stability.
Economic progress would have been more rapid if there had been internal political stability and no war with Japan.
Some observers have remarked that Japan attacked China in 1937 because it was witnessing the progress made in
China and could not wait any longer. This explains why China was capable of returning to a market economy after
economic reform started in 1978 and why, once the Chinese people were given some economic freedom, economic
development was so rapid since 1978. In some respects, including the institutional structure and functioning of the
commercial banks and of many industrial enterprises, the current state as of 2000 has not yet reached the high point
achieved in the 1930's because it is difficult to abolish the economic institutions and change bureaucratic behavior
established under central planning.
And Finally some tips from the Examiner’s Report from May 2010 When set in 2010, this question was a very popular choice to answer. Some candidates answered the question
thematically and really addressed the issue of the problems facing Jiang’s government. The best responses examined
Jiang's successes and failures. Weaker candidates did not know anything about the problems confronting Jiang
beyond Japan and the CCP. Too many candidates used this question, like the previous one, to write a set piece
about the conflict between the GMD and the CCP.
From this we can learn
 That it’s good to divide the problems into ‘themes’ (this is proper analysis anyway) such as ‘International’,
‘domestic politics’ and ‘social’.
 That we need to look for evidence of success and failure to make a proper judgement.
 That we should know about problems other than Japanese aggression and CCP competition.
 That we need to use our knowledge ‘building blocks’ to write an essay that meets the requirements of this
particular question and not use the question as an excuse to write a learned response.