Coping and Anxiety During Penalty Kicks
Anxiety and the Use of Coping Strategies during
Penalty Kicks
Sarabia Hernandez, M.S.
Health and Human Performance
Oklahoma State University
Timothy Baghurst, Ph.D.
Health and Human Performance
Oklahoma State University
Abstract
Anxiety can have deleterious effects on sports performance, particularly in high stress
situations. Penalty shootouts in soccer are one such example. Therefore, understanding how
anxiety can impact the penalty taker in addition to developing coping strategies for such a
situation could lead to more successful outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to
provide recommendations that can help coaches teach soccer players (kickers) how to cope
with the anxiety likely to be experienced during penalty shootouts. Training methods that
include inducing anxiety scenarios are discussed, and a rationale for developing
psychological intervention training is provided.
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Coping and Anxiety During Penalty Kicks
Introduction
An athlete’s performance of any sport is influenced by a variety of factors that are both
physiological and psychological. One of these factors can be anxiety (Woodman & Hardy, 2003).
According to Spielberger (1971), anxiety can be divided into state and trait anxiety. State anxiety is an
immediate state of emotion characterized by tension, apprehension, an increase in autonomic nervous
system activity, and varies depending on the situation (Horikawa & Yagi, 2012). Conversely, trait anxiety
is the tendency to perceive certain situations as threatening (Horikawa & Yagi, 2012). High trait anxiety
can result in an increase in state anxiety (Cox, 2012).
The state anxiety response can be explained by the stress process. This process begins with a
stimulus; in sporting situations this could be a competitive situation in which is appraised by the athlete
(Cox, 2012). How an athlete will appraise or evaluate the situation will occur on two levels; during the
first level the athlete will evaluated whether the outcome is considered important. Should this be the case,
the second level of appraisal the athlete determined whether coping resources are sufficient to deal with
the situation. Therefore, if the person is not interested in the final outcome or has good coping skills, state
anxiety will not occur (Cox, 2012).
Not only can anxiety be divided into state and trait anxiety, Multidimensional Theory states that
anxiety can be divided into cognitive and somatic anxiety (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith,
1990). Negative expectations and concerns about ability (i.e., “I do not believe that I possess the skills
necessary to be successful in this situation and will therefore likely fail”) are part of the cognitive
component of anxiety. This negativity manifests itself physiologically. The individual experiences
physical side effects such as an upset stomach, sweating, shaking, and vomiting to name just a few. This
is also termed somatic anxiety (Cox, 2012; McNally, 2002).
Effects of Anxiety on Soccer Penalty Shootouts
It has been shown in different sports that anxiety influences athletes’ performance by diminishing it
(Causer, Holmes, Smith, & Williams, 2011; Englert & Bertrams, 2012; Horikawa & Yagi, 2012). In team
sports, there are situations when the player may receive more pressure than usual, as in the case of penalty
shooting in soccer (Jordet, Hartman, Visscher, & Lemmink, 2007). In fact, anxiety is the most
experienced emotion during penalty shooting, probably because of players’ concerns about the final
outcome (Jordet & Elferink-Gemser, 2012). State anxiety is likely to occur, as players are likely
unaccustomed to the pressures of performing in such a high pressure situation. Accordingly, players
evaluate the outcome as important (level one) and may not perceive themselves as having the necessary
resources to deal with the situation (level one). It becomes important, therefore, to understand how
anxiety affects soccer players and how coping strategies might be introduced in order to decrease state
anxiety. A reduction in state anxiety will reduce levels of somatic anxiety and likely lead an improved
outcome.
Jordet, Elferink-Gemser, Lemmink, and Visscher (2006) found a positive relationship between
perceived contingency and somatic anxiety direction and a negative relationship between perceived
competence and cognitive anxiety intensity based on the contingency-competence-control (CCC) model.
This, according to Weisz and Stipek (1982), states that perceived control is the result of perceived
contingency and competence. In other words, believing that penalty practice increases performance
during penalty shootouts (high perceived contingency) helps to have a positive physiological response to
anxiety (somatic anxiety direction), and being confident about one’s ability to execute the penalty
shootout (high perceived competence) helps to decrease negative thoughts (cognitive anxiety). Not only
are cognitive and somatic anxiety affected when performing penalty shootouts (Horikawa & Yagi, 2012),
but high trait anxiety influences state anxiety by increasing it and ultimately decreasing the number of
successful scored goals.
The goalkeeper (GK) is another factor that can influence kickers’ anxiety during penalty shootouts
(Wilson, Wood, & Vine, 2009). Wilson and colleagues found that during high-threat conditions, the
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Coping and Anxiety During Penalty Kicks
addition of a GK increased kicker time fixation and time to fixate on GK rather than on the goal target, as
opposed to the low-threat condition. The final outcome of the previously mentioned characteristics during
the high-threat condition was a significant decrease on aiming further from the GK (aiming to goal) when
compared with the low-threat condition.
Jordet and Hartman (2008) used penalty shootouts on the most prestigious competitions (World
Cup, the European Championship, and the UEFA Champions League) and found that strikers tended to
avoid looking at the GK. They suggested it is likely that the preparation prior to shooting is shorter when
avoidance occurs compared with those who do not avoid looking at the GK. Moreover, they also found
that avoidance behavior (quicker preparation and avoidance looking at the GK) occurred more when the
consequence of a missed shot would lead to loss (negative valence), than on shots where a goal would
lead to victory. Avoidance behavior and negative valence was found to diminish performance resulting in
a missed goal.
Jordet et al. (2007) wanted “to estimate the relative importance of some of the major performance
components that are assumed to affect the outcome of kicks from the penalty mark” (p. 123). These
variables included the importance of the tournament, importance of the kick, player’s position (forward,
midfielder, defender), playing time, and age. They found that the final outcome was more influenced by
psychological factors such as the perceived importance of the tournament and importance of the kick. The
more important the tournament, the less successful the penalty kicks were, and the probability of scoring
declined progressively with each kick from the first to the fourth kicker. When combining kicks one to
three and comparing them with the combined kicks four to nine, the kicks one to three had a significantly
better outcome. In addition, during the sudden death stage, where the outcome is decided by one round of
penalties, the probabilities of scoring decreased. No significant differences were found for position,
playing time, and age.
Lastly, Jordet and Elferink-Gemser (2012) interviewed eight players to investigate stressors and
emotions and how participants coped during penalty shootouts. They divided penalty shootouts by phase:
1) break after extra time, 2) mid-circle, 3) walk, and 4) at the penalty mark. They found that stressors,
emotions, and coping changed during each penalty phase. Stressors were more persistent during the first
two phases. Coping strategies fluctuated being present during phase one, decreasing during phase two,
and increasing during phases three and four. In addition, anxiety was the emotion most reported during all
phases, but the most occurred during phase to and the least during phase four.
Coping Strategies for Anxious Situations
Due to the few studies on penalty shooting in soccer, it can be useful to evaluate how coping
strategies have been applied in other sporting situations. Contreras, Córdoba, and Fernández (2010) found
that positive words or images helped to decrease state anxiety across athletes in multiple sports. In
addition, some authors have found that negative thinking in the presence of high anxiety may diminish
performance (Bakker, Oudejans, Binsch, & Kamp, 2006; Raoul RD, Oudejans, Binsch, & Bakker, 2013).
Binsch, Oudejans, Bakker, Hoozemans, and Savelsbergh (2010) investigated if negative words or
mentioning what should be avoided was the cause of the decrease on performance; they found that
mentioning the area to avoid was responsible for such a decrease on performance. Therefore, the
suggestion of being anxious or the instruction for an athlete to calm down, for example, may in fact create
a more anxious athlete.
Reeves, Tenenbaum, and Lidor (2007) performed an intervention with soccer players who were
randomly assigned to one of three training conditions: a) single-task, b) dual-task, and c) selfconsciousness. Single-task participants completed training consisting of 45 penalty shots (day one) and 45
breakaway situations (day two). Dual-task participants performed the same training with the addition of
loud noises from a crowd. Self-consciousness participants did the same training as single-task with the
addition of a task; they were told to focus on the part of the foot that kicked the ball and the position of
their plant foot. Finally, the three groups performed the tasks (penalty shootout and breakaway situation)
under low and high pressure. The low pressure situation included no additional manipulation, but in the
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Coping and Anxiety During Penalty Kicks
high pressure situation participants competed for a prize, were videotaped, and externally evaluated. Selfconsciousness training was found to improve performance under high-pressure situations, while single
and dual-task training groups decreased their performance under high-pressure situations. Therefore,
requiring participants to focus on the process of the penalty kick, rather than the external environment
may help to eliminate extraneous, uncontrollable thoughts and variables.
Mental training is an important factor that may help to diminish the effects of high anxiety. With
this in mind, Wolframm and Micklewright (2011) conducted an intervention on dressage riders.
Participants completed interventions including goal-setting, relaxation techniques (progressive muscle
relaxation and breathing strategies), self-talk, concentration, and imagery sessions of two-hours per week
for six weeks. Participants’ performance increased significantly, although somatic arousal, cognitive
arousal, and self-confidence did not change significantly (nevertheless, there was a change after
intervention). Benefits of mental training such as progressive muscle relaxation, self-talk, diaphragmatic
breathing, and imagery to manage anxiety have been reported across multiple sports and situations
(Mousavi & Meshkini, 2011; Navaneethan & Rajan, 2010; Urra Tobar, 2014).
Lawrence et al. (2014) investigated the principle of specificity for simple and complex tasks
applied to anxiety, and hypothesized that practice in anxious situations would improve performance
during high anxiety situations during competition. The intervention consisted of four groups: a) control
group, b) anxiety group, c) anxiety-control group, and d) control-anxiety group. The anxiety group trained
with anxiety continually, anxiety-control group trained with anxiety half of the time, and control-anxiety
group trained like anxiety-control group but in the reverse order. Training with anxiety resulted in better
performance when doing a simple task and a complex task, and only the control group showed a decrease
in performance. In addition, for complex tasks the control-anxiety group had a better performance than
the anxiety-control group, suggesting that anxiety should be introduced later on during the learning
process. These findings are supported by Oudejans and Pijpers (2010) who found that training with mild
anxiety helps to maintain the level of performance under pressure.
Some studies have investigated quiet-eye training and how it influences penalty shootout
performance (Wood & Wilson, 2011, 2012). Quiet-eye training involves instruction on where and when
to pay attention during the quiet-eye period (Wood & Wilson, 2012), which according to Vickers (1996),
is “…that portion of the final fixation from onset to the first observable movement…” (p. 348). Both
studies by Wood and Wilson (2011, 2012) yielded inconclusive results. Wood and Wilson (2012) found
that quiet-eye training optimizes performance and aim. In addition, contingency, competence and control
increased when compared with control group. However, in their earlier study (2011) the quiet-eye trained
group improved visual control and accuracy, but when performing penalty shootouts under pressure those
characteristics did not prevail.
Recommendations for Penalty Shootouts
Although not many studies have investigated the role that anxiety may have on outcomes during
penalty kicks in soccer, application from other sports and environments allows some transfer to this
situation. Therefore, presented are several recommendations that coaches and players should consider
implementing into their training and penalty kicks in order to potentially improve the outcome.
Practice Penalty Kicks in Anxious Situations
Although not many studies have investigated the role that anxiety may have on outcomes during
penalty kicks in soccer, application from other sports and environments allows some transfer to this
situation. Therefore, presented are several recommendations that coaches and players should consider
implementing into their training and penalty kicks in order to potentially improve the outcome.
45
Time to Prepare
Coping and Anxiety During Penalty Kicks
Kickers should be aware of the advantages of taking their time to kick the ball during penalty
shootouts. When kickers avoid looking at the GK, the preparation time tends to be shorter and
performance is diminished (Jordet & Hartman, 2008). Therefore, kickers should be willing to observe the
GK, but they should not fixate their sight on the GK (Wilson et al., 2009). Rather, fixating on desired
location or the ball itself may be more effective.
Learn Coping Strategies
Coping strategies may be used during penalty shootouts (Jordet & Elferink-Gemser, 2012) and
should therefore be taught, learned, and practiced. Positive words can help to decrease anxiety (Contreras
et al., 2010), and the use of cue words may help to focus on the task at hand rather than on external
factors or the outcome. Other strategies that may help to diminish anxiety and improve performance
include goal-setting, relaxation techniques, self-talk, and imagery (Wolframm & Micklewright, 2011).
Consider Quiet-Eye Training
Although inconclusive, quiet-eye training optimizes accuracy (Wood & Wilson, 2011), which is an
important feature when performing penalty shootouts. The addition of mild-anxiety to quiet-eye training
may help to improve performance under pressure. For instance, a way of quiet-eye training can be
practiced can include watching penalty videos and analyzing the GK movements prior to each penalty.
Penalty kickers can be taught to focus on a specific area of the goal that can offer the best chance of
success (Wood & Wilson, 2011, 2012).
Conclusion
Athletes’ performance may be negatively influenced by anxiety, and state anxiety is influenced by
their beliefs and confidence about their ability and coping strategies to deal with the situation (trait
anxiety). During penalty shootouts, strikers can be affected by anxiety (Jordet & Elferink-Gemser, 2012),
which may be influenced by the importance of the tournament and kick (Jordet et al., 2007). Kickers
should practice penalties with mild anxiety and be given opportunity to learn coping strategies to help
reduce anxiety levels during actual competition. In addition, they should practice being self-conscious of
their movements prior to fixating on a target area of the goal. Finally, strikers should be aware that their
beliefs about the penalty shootouts and their skills will influence the final outcome; therefore, developing
strategies that enhance their confidence will lead to improved outcomes.
It is important to clarify that although these recommendations may help to improve performance
during penalty shootouts, the dynamic characteristics of state anxiety, in addition to the influence of trait
anxiety as noted by Horikawa and Yagi (2012), influences the final outcome. Therefore, the positive
outcome of a penalty shot cannot be assured, yet the use of pre-determined practice and strategies can
enhance the likelihood of success.
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Coping and Anxiety During Penalty Kicks
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