Stacking and Tracking: “Racialized
Jobs” Among Division IA College
Football Coaches
Jacob C. Day
North Carolina State University
2009 Scholarly Conference on College Sport
College Sports Research Institute
Chapel Hill, NC
Racial Disparity among
College Football Coaches
• Currently 7 black head
coaches (6%) at the
NCAA Division I-A Level.
• Black coaches make up
28% (286) of the total
assistants and only 12%
(31) of the Offensive and
Defensive Coordinators.
• Black athletes make up
50% of the participants at
the Division I-A level.
Stacking and Tracking –
Occupational Inequality Literature
• Individual differences determining
coaches’ mobility
– Human capital, Social capital
• Labor market characteristics
determining mobility
– Sponsored mobility, Vacancy chains,
Occupational Internal Labor Market.
• Implicit assumption that all coaches
occupy the same occupational
positions.
Stacking and Tracking –
Occupational Inequality Literature
• Racialized Jobs (Collins 1997)
– Job requirements include actual or
symbolic connection to black
community.
– Limit manager’s ability to develop skills
and experience necessary to move up
the corporate ladder.
Stacking and Tracking – Sports
Literature
• Stacking
– Racial segregation of athletes into
positions based on their “centrality.”
– Minority football players are
overrepresented in non-central positions
(e.g. wide receiver, running back,
defensive end, etc.).
Stacking and Tracking – Sports
Literature
• Tracking
– Stacking among athletes leads to the
reproduction of racial segregation
among coaches (Anderson 1993;
Braddock 1989).
– Less is known about how the structure
of coaching staffs impacts future career
outcomes.
Research Questions
• Are black coaches more likely than
white coaches to be in non-central
coaching positions?
• How does being in a non-central
coaching position impact a coach’s
future career opportunities?
Data
• Full-Time Coaches on all 12
coaching staffs in the Atlantic Coast
Conference (ACC).
– N = 120 (10 per team)
– Used media guides to gather coaches’
biographical information and career
histories.
Basic Structure of NC
State’s Coaching Staff
Defense
Offense
HC
DC
LB
DB
OC
DL
ST
RB
OL
Special
Teams
GA
GA
TE
Basic Structure of NC
State’s Coaching Staff
Defense
Offense
HC
DC
LB
DB
OC
DL
ST
RB
OL
Special
Teams
GA
GA
TE
Basic Structure of NC State’s
Coaching Staff - Executive
Defense
Offense
HC
DC
LB
DB
OC
DL
ST
RB
OL
Special
Teams
GA
GA
TE
Basic Structure of NC State’s
Coaching Staff - Central
Defense
Offense
HC
DC
LB
DB
OC
DL
ST
RB
OL
Special
Teams
GA
GA
TE
Basic Structure of NC State’s
Coaching Staff – Non-Central
Defense
Offense
HC
DC
LB
DB
OC
DL
ST
RB
OL
Special
Teams
GA
GA
TE
Variables
• Dependent:
– Current Position
• Executive
– Head Coach, Offensive and Defensive Coordinator.
• Central
– Quarterback, Linebacker, and Offensive Line Coaches.
• Non-Central
– Running Back, Wide Receiver, Defensive Line, and Defensive
Backs coaches.
– Central Position Years
• Total years after their first full-time position
• Independent:
– Race (White vs. Black)
– Years Coaching Executive, Central, and NonCentral Positions (not including current position).
– First Full-Time Position (Non-Central vs.
Executive/Central)
Results of Multinomial Logistic Regression
Predicting Current Position
Non-Central vs.
Executive
Central vs.
Executive
Non-Central vs.
Central
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
Model 5
Model 6
12.873*
3.860**
1.604
.982
8.025*
3.933**
Played DIA
.325*
.622
.303*
2.220
1.072
1.410
Played Central
.874
1.505
2.300
1.706
.380**
.678
Graduate Degree
1.651
2.457
1.281
2.002
1.289
1.227
GA/SA Years
1.055
.986
.903
.826
1.168
1.193
NC First Full-Time
1.759
1.696
.888
.411
1.981
.994
Black
Executive Years
.778*
.853*
.912
Central Years
.886**
1.094**
.810*
Non-Central Years
1.098*
.996
1.103*
-2 Log Likelihood
196.325
161.522
196.325
161.522
N = 110; * = p < .05; ** = p < .10; Table entries are odds ratios.
196.325
161.522
Results of Multinomial Logistic Regression
Predicting Current Position
Non-Central vs.
Executive
Central vs.
Executive
Non-Central vs.
Central
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
Model 5
Model 6
12.873*
3.860**
1.604
.982
8.025*
3.933**
Played DIA
.325*
.622
.303*
2.220
1.072
1.410
Played Central
.874
1.505
2.300
1.706
.380**
.678
Graduate Degree
1.651
2.457
1.281
2.002
1.289
1.227
GA/SA Years
1.055
.986
.903
.826
1.168
1.193
NC First Full-Time
1.759
1.696
.888
.411
1.981
.994
Black
Executive Years
.778*
.853*
.912
Central Years
.886**
1.094**
.810*
Non-Central Years
1.098*
.996
1.103*
-2 Log Likelihood
196.325
161.522
196.325
161.522
N = 110; * = p < .05; ** = p < .10; Table entries are odds ratios.
196.325
161.522
Results of Multinomial Logistic Regression
Predicting Current Position
Non-Central vs.
Executive
Central vs.
Executive
Non-Central vs.
Central
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
Model 5
Model 6
12.873*
3.860**
1.604
.982
8.025*
3.933**
Played DIA
.325*
.622
.303*
2.220
1.072
1.410
Played Central
.874
1.505
2.300
1.706
.380**
.678
Graduate Degree
1.651
2.457
1.281
2.002
1.289
1.227
GA/SA Years
1.055
.986
.903
.826
1.168
1.193
NC First Full-Time
1.759
1.696
.888
.411
1.981
.994
Black
Executive Years
.778*
.853*
.912
Central Years
.886**
1.094**
.810*
Non-Central Years
1.098*
.996
1.103*
-2 Log Likelihood
196.325
161.522
196.325
161.522
N = 110; * = p < .05; ** = p < .10; Table entries are odds ratios.
196.325
161.522
Results of OLS Regression Predicting
Years in Central Position
Constant
Black
Played DIA
Played Central
Graduate Degree
GA/SA Years
NC First Full-Time
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
11.347*
(1.683)
-5.021*
(1.408)
-.024
(1.253)
1.202
(1.275)
-.337
(1.321)
-.377
(.443)
-5.838*
(1.366)
9.642*
(1.394)
-.916
(1.281)
.028
(1.023)
1.981**
(1.047)
-.578
(1.079)
-.099
(.364)
-5.510*
(1.116)
.272*
(.037)
10.237*
(1.424)
-4.309**
(2.350)
.099
(1.014)
1.986**
(1.037)
-.547
(1.069)
-.093
(.360)
-6.495*
(1.246)
.276*
(.037)
4.419**
(2.576)
.251
.501
.510
Total Years
Black * NC First Full-Time
Adjusted R2
* = p < .05; * = p < .10; GA/SA years and Total years are centered on mean
Results of OLS Regression Predicting
Years in Central Position
Constant
Black
Played DIA
Played Central
Graduate Degree
GA/SA Years
NC First Full-Time
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
11.347*
(1.683)
-5.021*
(1.408)
-.024
(1.253)
1.202
(1.275)
-.337
(1.321)
-.377
(.443)
-5.838*
(1.366)
9.642*
(1.394)
-.916
(1.281)
.028
(1.023)
1.981**
(1.047)
-.578
(1.079)
-.099
(.364)
-5.510*
(1.116)
.272*
(.037)
10.237*
(1.424)
-4.309**
(2.350)
.099
(1.014)
1.986**
(1.037)
-.547
(1.069)
-.093
(.360)
-6.495*
(1.246)
.276*
(.037)
4.419**
(2.576)
.251
.501
.510
Total Years
Black * NC First Full-Time
Adjusted R2
* = p < .05; ** = p < .10; GA/SA years and Total years are centered on mean
Results of OLS Regression Predicting
Years in Central Position
Constant
Black
Played DIA
Played Central
Graduate Degree
GA/SA Years
NC First Full-Time
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
11.347*
(1.683)
-5.021*
(1.408)
-.024
(1.253)
1.202
(1.275)
-.337
(1.321)
-.377
(.443)
-5.838*
(1.366)
9.642*
(1.394)
-.916
(1.281)
.028
(1.023)
1.981**
(1.047)
-.578
(1.079)
-.099
(.364)
-5.510*
(1.116)
.272*
(.037)
10.237*
(1.424)
-4.309**
(2.350)
.099
(1.014)
1.986**
(1.037)
-.547
(1.069)
-.093
(.360)
-6.495*
(1.246)
.276*
(.037)
4.419**
(2.576)
.251
.501
.510
Total Years
Black * NC First Full-Time
Adjusted R2
* = p < .05; ** = p < .10; GA/SA years and Total years are centered on mean
Results of OLS Regression Predicting
Years in Central Position
Constant
Black
Played DIA
Played Central
Graduate Degree
GA/SA Years
NC First Full-Time
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
11.347*
(1.683)
-5.021*
(1.408)
-.024
(1.253)
1.202
(1.275)
-.337
(1.321)
-.377
(.443)
-5.838*
(1.366)
9.642*
(1.394)
-.916
(1.281)
.028
(1.023)
1.981**
(1.047)
-.578
(1.079)
-.099
(.364)
-5.510*
(1.116)
.272*
(.037)
10.237*
(1.424)
-4.309**
(2.350)
.099
(1.014)
1.986**
(1.037)
-.547
(1.069)
-.093
(.360)
-6.495*
(1.246)
.276*
(.037)
4.419**
(2.576)
.251
.501
.510
Total Years
Black * NC First Full-Time
Adjusted R2
* = p < .05; ** = p < .10; GA/SA years and Total years are centered on mean
Race Differences in Returns to
Central/Executive First Full-Time
Positions
Predicted Average Years in Central Positions by
First Full-Time Position and Race
Years in Central Positions
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
First Full-Time Central/Executive
First Full-Time Non-Central
First Full-Time Position
White
Black
Conclusion
• Preliminary support for “racialized”
jobs operating in the college coaching
profession.
• Evidence suggests that black
coaches receive less benefit from
starting in an advantaged position
than white coaches.
Conclusion
• Future research will expand scope to
include the entire population of DIA
coaches.
• Examine coaches career trajectories more
directly with a longitudinal research
design.
• Examine a coaches structural position
within a network of professional relations.
Social Network Structure
Social Network Structure
Social Network Structure