Children and Poverty McLoyd (1998)
• Childhood poverty is a major problem in the US
– Over 22% of children in the US live in poverty as
compared to 9% in Canada (1992)
– Individuals that are poor and live in a poor community
are even more disadvantaged because of less jobs,
good-quality education, and social supports.
• Risk of poverty is higher in single-mother families
– Low wages for women, poor economic conditions, low
education of single mothers, lack of child support from
fathers.
Effects of Poverty on Children's Cognitive Dev.
• Many studies show significant effects of poverty
on children’s cognitive functioning (IQ scores) and
verbal skills
– Remain significant after controlling for maternal
education, family structure, ethnicity (Duncan, 1994)
– Poverty was a better predictor of IQ than maternal
education
– Poverty at age 3 predicted IQ at age 5, even when IQ at
3 was controlled for
• Relation between income and IQ is nonlinear
– Positive effects of income on cognition are largest for
those near poverty line (compared to higher-class)
• Persistent poverty worse than transient poverty
Mediating Variables
• Physical health of child
– Physical health problems combined with less resources
to remediate these complications hinder cognitive dev.
– Prematurity (low birth weight) is associated with many
neurological and cognitive problems
– Prematurity is more common in poorer individuals
because of inadequate nutrition and prenatal care
– Higher rates of prenatal exposure to substances among
poorer infants, which affects cognitive development
– Lead poisoning associated with cognitive deficits, and
poor children have higher levels of lead in blood due to
older housing and exposure to environmental pollution
• Home-Based cognitive stimulation
– Poverty and low maternal education are associated with
less cognitive stimulation in home
– Cognitive stimulation in home is linked to child’s IQ
Effects of Poverty on Academic Achievement
• Poor children do worse on many measures of
academic achievement as compared to non poor
– Achievement tests, grade retention, course failures,
placement in special education, high school graduation
• Persistent poverty worse than transient poverty
• Early poverty (during first 5 years) is worst
• Neighbourhoods with more affluent families are
associated with better academic achievement
– Seasonal effects: neighbourhoods have more positive
effects during summer months, but these gains are
stronger for those from higher-SES neighbourhoods
Mediating Variables
• Parental and home factors that affect achievement
– Verbal interactions with mothers, parental expectations,
positive relationships with parents, discipline
– Emotional support and cognitive stimulation in home
– Literacy resources in home, discussing school, parental
education
– In home resources have greatest effects during
summer, which are strongest for high SES children
• Teacher and school characteristics
– Teacher attitudes, school values, classroom climate
– Teachers perceive poorer children less positively: less
positive attention, fewer learning opportunities, and less
reinforcement
– Schools that stratify classes have more achievement
gaps
Mediating Variables
• Physical health status
– Poverty affects school achievement partly because of
poorer physical health
• Protective Processes
– Parenting: strict, directive, defined rules and
supervision, warmth
– Preschool education programs increase school
readiness, but effects may wash out with time
Effects of Poverty on Socioemotional Functioning
• Higher rates of emotional and behavioral problems
among poor children and adolescents
– Externalizing problems (aggression, acting out) more
common than internalizing (anxiety, depression)
• Persistent poverty worse than transient poverty
Mediators: Parental dysphoria, harsh inconsistent
punishment
– Parent’s emotional responses & child-rearing behaviors
• Discrete and chronic stressors: more negative life
events among poor children
– Parental conflict, violence, poor housing, homelessness
Protective factors: positive parenting and adult role
models, preschool intervention programs
Poverty, Civic Communities, and Supervised Sports
• Supervised sports helps develop social skills, self
esteem, and reduce school drop out
• In 1994, 1/3 of children almost never participated in
supervised sports
• >60% of children from very poor homes almost
never participated in supervised sports vs 27% of
those from well-off homes
Two factors: poverty and community variables
• Civic Communities: safe to play during the day,
adults to look up to and supervise
• 72% of children in civic communities participate in
supervised sport vs 58% in non civic comm.
• Universal and targeted programs for at-risk
Coping with Child Hunger
• Poverty is related to poor health, nutrition,
development, and school readiness
• Hunger is a universal symbol of deprivation
• Coping strategies: food bank and relatives
• Single mothers more likely to use food bank (less
social support)
• 34% of mothers say they skip meals, parents 7
times more likely to go hungry than children
• At-Risk: single parent families, off-reserve
Aboriginal, low income
• >50% of mothers have a chronic health condition
• Many still had education, indicating that education
alone in not enough