https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tIsgFvAAg
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Learning Objectives
• To be able to understand the theoretical
approaches to arousal.
Theories of Arousal
We need the appropriate level of arousal / activation
for the action we are to perform (known as optimal
arousal), whether it is digesting a meal or catching a
cricket ball.
The effects of arousal can be either positive or
negative.
High arousal can cause us to worry & become anxious,
which is negative if it isn’t controlled.
Raising arousal level can also cause a state of
‘readiness’ to perform – this is largely a positive
aspect & can enhance performance.
Arousal and Performance
Drive Theory states that as arousal increases so does the dominant
habit.
Tip: think of a ‘closed skill’ e.g. A tennis serve.
If you have learnt that skill so it is very stable and enduring (long lasting) then in high
pressure situations e.g. serving for the championship you will be able to serve very
well. However if you have not learnt how to serve very well then the pressure will
have an even more adverse effect on your serve.
DRIVE THEORY
Dominant
Habit
Arousal
DRIVE THEORY (Hull, 1951)
(NB – ‘drive’: directed, motivated or ‘energised’ behaviour that an
individual has towards achieving a certain goal)
• Key component is performer’s level of skill & sees the
relationship between arousal & performance as
linear: performance increases in proportion to
arousal.
• A very high arousal level would result in a high
performance level, provided skill is well-learned.
• However, if the skill is not well-learned, performance
of skill will deteriorate as arousal increases.
Drive theory conti………..
• This theory helps explain why beginners find it
difficult to perform well under pressure. Often
beginners skill level decreases if they are competing
in a relay race using new skills, e.g. football dribbling
race.
• However, also explains how experienced athletes
perform better under pressure using well-learned
skills, e.g. good tennis players play better against
stronger opposition.
• Clearly the impact of arousal on performance is
complex, consider the following:
Drive theory conti………..
• Ed Moses, Olympic medal winner (1976 & ’84
400m hurdles) said ‘the way I get the best out is
by not expecting an easy race. It’s easier when
there’s pressure. You get emotional & you go out
to perform’.
• Bob Tisdall described a fellow Cambridge student
who desperately wanted to win a race for the
university to get a ‘blue’. He especially stayed on a
fourth year to have another chance. Tisdall
reported that the student ‘froze in the starting
blocks in the finals. We had to pick him up and he
was stiff, like a corpse’.
Drive theory conti………..
• Arousal improved Ed Moses’ performance but
devastated the performance of the Cambridge
student. Both athletes were performing welllearned tasks. Drive theory fails to explain this
outcome, & its focus on the well-learned task
cannot be applied to the many sports skills
which combine both well-learned & novel
elements.
Inverted U Theory
The Drive Theory does not explain why some sporting
performances improve and some decline in different
circumstances.
The Inverted U Theory states that arousal must be at an
‘optimal level’ for peak performance. If arousal is too low
then the athlete must ‘psych’ themselves up and if
arousal becomes too high it turns to ANXIETY.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4hegqk2r
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Inverted U Theory
High
Performance
Low
Optimal Arousal
Arousal
Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
This theory accounts for some of the criticisms of
the drive theory and this inverted ‘U’
relationship exists in a number of different
circumstances:
1. Activity type – fine movements & complex skills
(which require large amount of attention)
require a lower arousal level, e.g. putting in golf
/ snooker shots / pistol shooting (high arousal
interferes with fine muscle movement, coordination & concentration). Whereas tackling
in football or rugby requires a high level of
arousal (which helps skills requiring speed or
strength).
Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
2. Level of expertise – a beginner needs only
very low levels of arousal to perform well.
Because control of the skill is not yet
automatic, i.e. a novice may lose
concentration or become anxious,
therefore low levels result in optimum
performance. In contrast, such low levels
of arousal will have no effect on the elite
performer, who needs much higher levels
to produce optimum performance
Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
3. Personality – personality types who enjoy
high levels of excitement & are generally
more extrovert can cope in a high-arousal
situation. People who are more
introverted are general more likely to
perform well under low-arousal
conditions.
Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
This theory accounts for some of the criticisms of
the drive theory and this inverted ‘U’
relationship exists in a number of different
circumstances:
1. Activity type – fine movements & complex skills
(which require large amount of attention)
require a lower arousal level, e.g. putting in golf
/ snooker shots / pistol shooting (high arousal
interferes with fine muscle movement, coordination & concentration). Whereas tackling
in football or rugby requires a high level of
arousal (which helps skills requiring speed or
strength).
Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
2. Level of expertise – a beginner needs only
very low levels of arousal to perform well.
Because control of the skill is not yet
automatic, i.e. a novice may lose
concentration or become anxious,
therefore low levels result in optimum
performance. In contrast, such low levels
of arousal will have no effect on the elite
performer, who needs much higher levels
to produce optimum performance
Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
3. Personality – personality types who enjoy
high levels of excitement & are generally
more extrovert can cope in a high-arousal
situation. People who are more
introverted are general more likely to
perform well under low-arousal
conditions.
AROUSAL THEORIES (1)
DRIVE THEORY
A theory of arousal that proposes a linear relationship between
arousal and performance; as arousal increases so does the
quality of performance.
Devised by Hull in (1943) and Spence & Spence (1966)
Is concerned with a proportional linear relationship between
arousal and performance.
DRIVE THEORY
Performance = Habit strength X
Drive
P=HD
The more an elite sports person
is aroused the better their
performance due to the
dominant response being
chosen is habitual.
The more a beginner sports
person is aroused the dominant
response may be incorrect and
high levels of arousal can cause
a deterioration in performance.
PROBLEMS WITH DRIVE THEORY
• The habitual behaviour/
dominant response is not
always the correct one
(think of beginners)
• By increasing drive
(arousal) performers often
resort to previously
learned skills because they
are dominant but may be
incorrect.
• Even highly skilled players
‘choke’ in highly charged
situations.
AROUSAL THEORIES (2)
INVERTED U THEORY
A theory of arousal that considers that optimal performance
occurs when the performer reaches an optimal level of arousal.
Devised by Yerkes and Dodson (1908)
Is concerned with the optimal level of arousal being found
through observations of performance.
Most athletes and coaches can relate to this theory
INVERTED U THEORY
At low levels of arousal,
performance will be below par
meaning that the athlete is not
psyched up.
As arousal increases so does
performance, up to an optimal
point. After this point, further
increases in arousal lead to
declines in performance.
Each athlete has their own
optimal level of arousal.
INVERTED U THEORY
At low levels of arousal,
performance will be below par
meaning that the athlete is not
psyched up.
As arousal increases so does
performance, up to an optimal
point. After this point, further
increases in arousal lead to
declines in performance.
Each athlete has their own
optimal level of arousal.
PROBLEMS WITH INVERTED U
THEORY
• Critics question if optimal arousal always occurs at the midpoint of the curve.
• One curve does not explain the different optimal levels of
arousal needed for simple and complex tasks.
AROUSAL THEORIES (3)
CATASTROPHE THEORY
A theory that predicts a rapid decline in performance resulting
from the combination of high cognitive anxiety and increasing
somatic anxiety.
Devised by Hardy and Frazey (1987)
Is a development of the Inverted U theory but involves a faster
and more dramatic reduction in performance.
It is more a model than theory because it tries to predict human
behaviour rather than explain it.
CATASTROPHE THEORY
Point A
Cognitive anxiety is high.
Somatic anxiety is low.
Performance is enhanced.
Point B
Cognitive anxiety is high.
Somatic anxiety is high.
Performance can deteriorate.
Point D
Performance does not return to
original level immediately even
though performer is trying to
decrease arousal.
Point C
Performance still deteriorating.
CATASTROPHE THEORY
Physiological arousal is related to performance in an
inverted ‘U’ fashion when the athlete is not worried or has
low cognitive anxiety state anxiety.
If cognitive anxiety is high, the increases in arousal pass a point of optimal
arousal and a rapid decline in performance occurs (the catastrophe).
It would be very difficult to recover from this point.
TASK
• Complete the questions on the accompanying sheets.
• Try and relate your answers to a sport of your choice.