Making Lemonade from Lemons
Analyzing the Mainstream Discourse of a Pop Music Hit through a
Feminist Lens
Written by: Allisa Lindo
Supervisor: Joanna Doona
MSc in Media and Communication
Department of Communication and Media
2017
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Abstract
The release of Beyoncé’s 2016 visual album Lemonade was one of the most talked about pop
culture moments of the year. The album went on to become the highest-selling album of the
year. Aside from commercial acclaim, the album was also successful in generating much talk
within various circles about its focus on Black women and its political nature. The album’s
release came at the height of increased racial tensions between Blacks and whites in the
United States in the aftermath of several highly-publicized deaths of Black men and women
around the country. Beyoncé, not previously known for bringing politics into her work, was
both criticized and congratulated for the album’s message and its success. The album itself
told the story of a woman dealing with the infidelity of her husband, and also drew on the
lives and experiences of Black women collectively to tell a story of Black womanhood in the
United States.
Using Lemonade as a case study, this thesis will use qualitative discourse analysis to
critically analyze news articles from the top newspapers by circulation within the United
States. This analysis seeks to determine in what ways this album is reflective of the
relationship between popular culture and feminism, paying particular attention to
postfeminist theory because of the album’s status as a commercial production. In addition, it
seeks to uncover how mainstream media discourse approaches the representation of Black
women, especially given the historical background of racial discrimination and oppression
within the United States.
This thesis also endeavors to link together the ideas surrounding postfeminism, and how this
concept joins with issues of agency and media power. By intertwining these concepts this
research will contribute to the understanding of how media power and agency are central in
considerations surrounding feminism and the creation of popular culture texts.
Keywords: postfeminism, agency, representation, Black womanhood, media power
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Acknowledgements
First, I would like to thank Joanna Doona for her unwavering positivity and guidance
throughout this process. I have been continually inspired by her insights into this topic, as
well as by her trust and faith in my abilities. I especially give a special thank you to my
family, my parents most of all, for supporting me in all of my personal and academic goals.
Finally, I wish to thank my classmates who have become a strong support system over the
last two years.
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Table of Contents
Introduction………………………………………………………...………………5
Aims and Research Question…………….……………………………………..….8
Literature Review…………………………………………………………………..9
Understanding postfeminism and the controversy surrounding it………….9
Popular culture and Black womanhood…………………………………….12
Agency and media power…………………………………………………..15
Beyoncé the feminist……………………………………………………….17
Method and Methodology………………………………………………...………..20
Analysis of News Text……………………………………………………………..25
Discussions of Black womanhood and feminism……...……………….….25
Influence within music industry…………………………………………...29
Controlling the narrative: the role of agency……………………………....31
Ownership and agency……………………………………………………..34
The economics of Black womanhood and recognition………………….…37
Link to feminism and postfeminism……………………………………….40
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………........40
Appendices………………………………………………………………………...44
References………………………………………………………………………....51
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Introduction: Lemonade, a Cultural Phenomenon
In February 2016, American singer and songwriter Beyoncé quietly released a single and
music video titled “Formation” online. This surprise video prominently featured Black
women and referred heavily to the Black Lives Matter (also sometimes written as
#BlackLivesMatter) movement in the United States by using imagery. The Black Lives
Matter movement (BLM) began in 2012 in response to the shooting death of Florida teenager
Trayvon Martin by civilian George Zimmerman (Black Lives Matter, 2016). What began as a
hashtag on the social media website Twitter, eventually developed into a offline political
movement dedicated to addressing issues such as police brutality and the alleged racial
discrimination that led to tragedies such as the death of Trayvon Martin among others. The
Black Lives Matter group organized large protests in response to the high-profile police
killings of Black men and women around the United States. Just the words “Black Lives
Matter” have become a heated topic for debate in the United States. Some argue that the
group is increasing the tension on race relations between Blacks and whites within the United
States, while others argue that it is simply a necessary reaction to pre-existing issues that have
not been dealt with in a post-slavery society. Regardless of what the movement represents,
what is certain is that any conversations surrounding them and the issues it purports to
represent are politically-charged.
In April of 2016, Beyoncé followed the release of “Formation” with the launch of the visual
album1 Lemonade during a dedicated special on HBO. The visual album combined different
aspects by lyrically telling the story of a woman struggling with her partner’s infidelity while
visually celebrating the Black female form. The response to the album was immense. The
album debuted at the top of American music charts, with all 12 songs debuting on the
Billboard Top 100 list (Billboard, 2016). This gave the singer the record for the most songs
on the Top 100 chart simultaneously by a female artist (Mendizabal, 2016). In April 2017, the
International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) released a report naming
Lemonade as the highest-selling album of the year globally (IFPI Global Music Report,
2017). This recognition encompasses all sales of the album both physically and digitally.
Besides the commercial success, the album also created immediate discussions about Black
1
In an analysis of visual albums, the BBC described visual albums as a film featuring at least two
songs, with a bridging storyline, that has been released within a year of the corresponding album
(Sommers 2016, p. 1)
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female identity in national and international media. These discussions were especially
poignant given the heightened, and public, racial tensions within American society after a
series of highly-publicized police shooting deaths of Black men and women. The commercial
success of the album, combined with its inherent political nature, makes the album ripe for
investigation, especially within the context of the American media landscape. Lemonade and
the reactions to it are situated within an overlap between discussions of media influence and
power, and the album’s clear focus on Black womanhood. Discussions surrounding feminism
and popular culture are still developing, particularly with regard to how these two interact
with each other. Such discussions focused on Black women and their perceptions in popular
culture have been rather niche up until this point in time.
Adding further to the intrigue of the album, are the various discussions that permeate the
discourse surrounding the artist herself. Beyoncé is no stranger to generating discussion and
gossip, having been in the public eye since the 1990s since the success of the girl group
Destiny’s Child, of which she was a member. However, since becoming a successful solo
artist, Beyoncé has shied away from directly taking on political controversies through her
music. She and her husband, rapper Jay Z, have made politically motivated donations to
various groups, including the Black Lives Matter organization, and have publicly endorsed
political candidates such as Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton. Despite these endorsements,
in her role as an artist, Beyoncé had previously positioned herself apolitically. This adds to
the reasons that make Lemonade particularly interesting as it represents a departure for
Beyoncé as an artist.
The album’s overall overt political tone left little doubt it was meant to be received as
political, especially the timing of its release at the height of racial tension in the United
States. The surprise nature of the album, meaning the surprise of its release, combined with
the political climate and Beyoncé’s pre-existing ‘star power’ contributed to it becoming one
of the most talked about moments of 2016. For the purposes of this thesis, it is worth noting
that her previous releases contained explicit feminist “girl power” messaging which
generated controversy within feminist circles (Weidhase, 2015). The specifics surrounding
this controversy will be discussed later on. The most notable instances of this previous
expedition into feminism are her songs “Run the World (Girls)”, which contained the lyrics
“who run the world? Girls”, and her song “Irreplaceable” which also touched on the topic of
a woman dealing with an unfaithful partner but immediately choosing to kick him out of their
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home for his actions.
As with her previous work, Beyoncé was hailed and criticized for Lemonade in various
arenas, but some of the fiercest criticisms came from recognized feminist scholars. This is not
the first instance of feminist debate surrounding Beyoncé’s music, as many of her previous
songs, both as a member of Destiny’s Child and as a solo act, have contained feminist
messaging which has also prompted responses from the feminists of the academic world. A
perfect example of both the praise and criticism this album engendered can be found in an
essay written by feminist scholar bell hooks’2 entitled “Moving Beyond the Pain”3. She
writes:
Viewers who like to suggest Lemonade was created solely or primarily for Black
female audiences are missing the point. Commodities, irrespective of their subject
matter, are made, produced, and marketed to entice any and all consumers. Beyoncé’s
audience is the world and that world of business and money-making has no color.
What makes this production—this commodity—daring is its subject matter.
Obviously Lemonade positively exploits images of Black female bodies—placing
them at the center, making them the norm. (2016)
Within these few lines of text, hooks touches on a variety of concepts that will be explored
throughout the course of this thesis. She begins by questioning the role of capitalism and
commodification in the release and distribution of the album. This relates on issues related to
postfeminism and the debate concerning the effect it has on feminism as a whole.
Postfeminism is heavily contested with multiple understandings of what the concept is, which
will be further discussed in a later segment. She also addresses the meaning Lemonade has
for Black women, particularly since it places them at the center of the story being weaved
through the visuals accompanying the album. And finally, this quote links to Beyoncé’s
influence and status as a global celebrity. What does it mean that a celebrity in such a
position releases an album that focuses solely on Black womanhood?
This thesis will analyze reactions to, and discussions of, Lemonade in mainstream media in
order to evaluate how the album fits into the framework of contemporary feminism and our
understanding of celebrity agency within the United States. The discussion about
contemporary feminism is centered around the concept of postfeminism. The analysis will
begin with an inspection of how the focus of Black womanhood is approached in the texts
hooks’ name is spelled with lowercase letters according to her stated preference.
Originally published on the bell hooks Institute website but republished in British newspaper, The
Guardian (see: hooks, 2016)
2
3
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analyzed. It will then shift to a discussion on agency and how that is enhanced or ignored
within the media reactions to the album. This analysis of agency will then be linked to the
nebulous theoretical space surrounding postfeminism before delving into the role of agency
within feminism, postfeminism and popular culture in general. Overall, it will construct an
argument based around the role of agency and its importance in the popular culture
constructions of Black womanhood, an identity often overlooked within research pertaining
to agency and feminism.
Aims and Research Questions
This research seeks to find the answers to the following questions:
1. What are the common themes in mainstream media reactions about Lemonade and
Beyoncé?
2. How are these themes about Lemonade situated within the postfeminist
understandings of the relationship between feminism and popular culture?
3. What does the mainstream discourse about Lemonade reveal about the representation
of Black women in American media?
By finding the answers to these questions, this research will be able to assess the ways in
which Lemonade reflect the dialogue surrounding feminism and its evolution in the context
of popular culture and popular music. This thesis is situated within a more positive approach
to postfeminism and this concept’s relationship with popular culture, specifically focusing on
how they are impacted by Beyoncé’s identities as a Black female artist in a historically
hostile industry for Black women.
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Literature Review
In order to gain a more nuanced understanding of the position of feminism in popular culture,
it is important to first distinguish the varying approaches within feminism that interact with
this kind of cultural analysis. This thesis will incorporate elements of feminist media theory,
particularly postfeminism, as well as media power and celebrity agency.
Firstly, feminist media theory utilizes the politics and ideology of feminism when critically
analyzing various aspects of media (Steiner, 2014). The media being analyzed does not need
to be geared specifically toward feminist audiences with feminist intentions. Feminist media
theory differentiates itself from media theory through this application of feminist theory to all
forms of media, including the inclusion and representation of historically underrepresented
groups. It is this focus on representation, and ultimately intersectionality, that motivates the
inclusion of feminist media theory in this research. For the purposes of this research,
representation is defined in terms of gender and race. The focus is on intersectionality is
important due to the subject being analyzed. Beyoncé’s identities as a Black female artist are
important to acknowledge for the purposes of this research. The importance of this will be
expanded upon later in this review.
Of particular interest is the link between feminist media theory and postfeminism. The
concept of postfeminism is based within the area of feminist media theory. Postfeminism is
usually seen as the byproduct of the media and advertising industries (Genz and Brabon,
2009), therefore the analysis of postfeminism and its various definitions springs from
feminist media studies.
Understanding postfeminism and the controversy surrounding it
There are many debates about the progress of feminism as a whole among feminist scholars.
One of the main arguments is related to the concept of ‘postfeminism’ (sometimes written as
‘post-feminism’). To understand the controversy surrounding the term, and critically analyze
its relationship to popular culture, it is necessary to distinguish the different schools of
thought regarding it. The ideas surrounding postfeminism are complex and the
understandings of the term could be best described as nebulous. However the discussions
surrounding it can be loosely grouped into two main definitions and approaches. What is
most clear about postfeminism is that it is a divisive issue among scholars, but it is firmly
9
situated within the sphere of popular culture which lends it relevance for this research.
The first school of thought regards postfeminism as the systematic destruction of feminist
ideals by the larger patriarchal society. Angela McRobbie writes in the introduction to her
2009 book The Aftermath of Feminism that elements of the feminist movement have been coopted to give the current generation of women a watered down version of feminism (2009,
pp. 2-5). She argues this version of feminism uses the consumer culture to offer “a notional
form of equality” to prevent women from seeing and experiencing the full power of feminism
(2009, pp 2-4). McRobbie’s view is reflective of this first perspective of postfeminism as a
destructive and subversive force that is antifeminist at its core.
Those that subscribe to this view of postfeminism consider it to be overwhelmingly negative.
In an article in Time, Ginia Bellafante described what she perceived as a shift within
feminism from a strong political force to a focus on empty consumption (1999). Many
theorists argue that postfeminism is a corrosive influence on feminism (McRobbie, 2009;
Vesey, 2015). To be more specific, postfeminism is seen as a product of the advertising and
media industry, developed as a means to increase sales and specifically target women to urge
greater consumption. Therefore, postfeminism is seen as the superficial use of feminism by
the advertising industry to further capitalist and neoliberal goals of consumption. As
capitalism and neoliberalism are considered elements of the patriarchy, postfeminism is
therefore a tool of the patriarchy itself sneakily disguising itself as feminism. This ‘wolf in
sheep’s clothing’ perception of postfeminism paints its rise as the death blow to feminism,
co-opting the movement and replacing it with a weak and consumerist-based version of it
(Bellafante, 1999; Genz and Brabon, 2009).
The second approach to understanding postfeminism is more lenient in its assessment of the
term. Those who adhere to this way of looking at the concept see postfeminism as part of the
evolution of the feminist movement. In looking at the various ‘waves’ of feminism,
postfeminism is attached to the ‘third wave’ of feminism. In their analysis of hit HBO series
Sex and the City, Fien Adriaens and Sofie Van Bauwel write that while some scholars
consider the prefix “post” to mean “anti”, it can also be understood to mean “in relation to”
(2011, p. 176). Therefore, the second main understanding of postfeminism is that it is
complementary to the feminist movement. Postfeminist is cast as an important critical
engagement with the concepts, both theoretical and political, that previously emerged from
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the movement as a direct result of the interaction between feminism and other critical
movements centered on societal change (ibid). Adriaens and Van Bauwel explicitly write that
postfeminism should be seen, “as an essential fundamental of the third wave” (ibid, p. 177).
In addition, postfeminism embraces how much broader contemporary feminism has become
in relation to previous iterations of the movement. To summarize, this perspective views
postfeminism as an iteration of feminism that embraces influences from both the academic
sphere as well as popular culture to create a more inclusive feminist culture for the modern
woman. In many ways, postfeminism is also seen as a backlash to second wave feminism.
Among this group, whom I will call postfeminist optimists, are a younger generation of
feminists who believe they have moved beyond the second wave of feminism, the kind of
feminism that defined the previous generation of women (Genz and Brabon, 2009, p. 3).
Postfeminist optimists see this movement as an evolution away from the perceived rigidity of
the second wave. Genz and Brabon give a quick summary of what the term means to
optimists during the emergence of postfeminism in the 1980s into the 1990s. They describe it
as:
A generational shift in feminist thinking and in understanding social relations between
men and women, beyond traditional feminist politics and its supposed threat to
heterosexual relationships (ibid, p. 11)
What is important to note in this definition is the focus on the generational differences
between the second wave of the previous decades and the generation of feminists during this
time period. This is particularly important given that postfeminist optimists see this shift in
thinking as part of a process of revitalizing feminism. Therefore, postfeminism is part of the
natural process of evolution and growth that is necessary for the movement to survive. This
stands in stark opposition to the postfeminist pessimists who believe the development of
postfeminism to be a sign of the decline of feminism in general. But also of great importance
is postfeminism’s focus on constantly reassessing the development of feminism, in essence
establishing a self-critical perspective. Therefore, the key points of postfeminism here are
both the evolution of feminism as well as maintaining an element of reflexivity throughout
the process of evolution (ibid, p. 11).
Ultimately, the varying understandings of postfeminism leaves much room for negotiation
when it comes to analytical perspectives. For the purposes of this analysis, postfeminism is
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understood to be the overlap between popular culture and the feminist movement. It shares
characteristics with the ‘third-wave’ of feminism, namely the embrace of popular culture and
the rejection of old-fashioned second-wave feminism (Adriaens and van Bauwel, 2011). Both
postfeminism and third-wave feminism accept and include aspects of modern life and popular
culture (ibid). Postfeminism is the use of media resources to create a more mainstreamed and
easily-engageable form of feminism for the general public. Despite the polarized debate
surrounding postfeminism, it is not inherently against feminism as so many argue.
Postfeminism deals with the unease that exists at the meeting point between what it means to
be feminine and the ideals of feminism (ibid). What postfeminism is at its core is the pursuit
of clarifying what tensions exist in the modern incarnation of feminism, and how to move
feminism forward in a way that keeps it relevant to modern society and the modern woman. It
is a force for the evolution of feminism that intersects with the popular culture and media of
the modern world.
Popular culture and Black womanhood
This link between postfeminism and pop culture is especially important with regard to this
research which is rooted in the discussion of the influence of music. From a scholarly
perspective, the interplay between Black female identity and the pop music genre is not often
approached. Scholarship into feminism and pop music is a recent exploration in the social
sciences. In the opening statements of his book Why Music Matters, David Hesmondhalgh
writes that the cultures of the global south “are often considered less worthy than those of the
global north...such evaluations are surely connected to long histories of inequality and
violence” (2013, p. 4). Hesmondhalgh is correct in his observation that the histories of
mankind affect the way we see cultural forms like music. This creates division between and
within societies, often labeled as “low culture” versus “high culture”. Hesmondhalgh ends
this paragraph on culture by saying, “Gender and class inequality infect prevailing judgments
of aesthetic worth” (2013, p. 4). Here his statement seems unfinished as he neglects the racial
element that often affects cultural worth. An example of this can be found in certain
discussions about Black female performers in the early 20th century. Brown documents how
Black performers often faced segregation and other forms of discrimination around the world.
She writes, “forms of cultural and racial assimilation threatened to infect an imagined
European purity, as Black people insinuated themselves into European culture” (2001, p.
244). The history of discrimination and the prioritization of white culture is why the analysis
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of cultural moments involving Black culture in particular is important to pursue.
The effect of racism and the legacy of slavery are factors that need to be accounted for when
discussing the socially constructed understandings of “low culture” versus “high culture”.
Specifically, the effect is that of painting Black culture as an “other” and undesirable. Of
particular importance, in the history of tension between white and Black culture, is the idea of
cultural and racial purity. This notion most often places white culture above that of Black
culture, singling the latter out for exclusion and sometimes extermination. This is the starting
point for the expanding the definition of what Hesmondhalgh refers to as “high culture”
versus “low culture”. Even more important to refining this understanding of the battle
between “low culture” and “high culture” is the ramifications this has for Black women, who
are forced into a unique and limited position within this debate. This will be expanded upon
further on in this section.
Corner also approaches this perspective on culture in his book Theorising Media (2011). In
his discussion regarding subjectivity, Corner explicitly links this tension over culture to the
media. Instead of “low culture” and “high culture”, Corner frames this debate through the
terms “good” and “bad” cultural products (2011, p. 100). Furthermore, he points to what he
describes as “the taste-reflecting and the taste-forming dimensions of media systems” (ibid, p.
100). The importance of this debate lies within the values assigned by society which
inherently relate to the pre-existing patterns of inequality (ibid, p. 100). The link to inequality
is once again important to highlight as it recognizes the role pre-existing societal systems
play in establishing the consequences of culture within that society. Inequality and culture are
inexplicably linked, meaning that attention must be paid to this link when analyzing subjects
that fall within the realm of the cultural. This is especially important when addressing culture
created by a member of an underrepresented group, as is the case with Beyoncé.
The focus on the suppression of Black culture in favor of European culture takes on
importance within the context of this research because of the implications this has for Black
womanhood, which is a central theme. Wrapped within this idea of “low culture”, what can
also be described as cultures not worthy of recognition, is the distancing of narratives
surrounding Black womanhood. It may be an obvious point, but it is important to highlight
that Black women bear two identities that carry certain burdens within American society.
Those identities, bluntly put, are “Black” and “woman.” They sit at the center of race politics
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and feminism. Adding to the complex history of what is considered “low culture” and what is
“high culture”, in the United States, Black women face an impossible dichotomy. Sika
Dagbovie-Mullins describes this dichotomy as the following:
At the same time that Black girls are oversexualized and considered sexually aberrant
in the media, Black women are infantilized, viewed as play things who are endlessly
sexually available and childlike, particularly in popular culture media where images
of Black women are most prominent: reality television and music videos (2013, p.
746).
So, while Black women must bear the racial associations that have endured in a post-slavery
society, they must also contend with the demeaning caricature of being overtly sexual people
(Brown, 2001; Dagbovie-Mullins, 2013). They are simultaneously deprived of any
meaningful powers of agency, and are therefore rendered similar to infants in terms of agency
(Dagbovie-Mullins, 2013). This caricaturization fits into the prominent stereotype of Black
women as sexual vixens within popular culture in the United States (Bobo, 1995). This is one
of four general images and stereotypes attributed to Black women throughout various
discourses in entertainment and popular culture: the mammy, the matriarch, the welfare
queen and, of course, the sexual vixen (Woodard and Mastin 2005, p. 266). The damaging
imagery of Black women as sexual vixens is reinforced time and again by depictions of Black
women as sexual, objects for the pleasure of men, represented in music videos and song
lyrics in some of the most popular songs (Dagbovie-Mullins, 2013).
Within the United States Black womanhood is greatly complicated by contradicting, but
equally degrading, stereotypes of how Black women are regarded within the predominant
positions of society. Although these stereotypes evolve and change within the different
spheres of American society, “the consistent factor...is the social construction of African
American women as ‘Others’” (Jordan-Zachary, 2005, p. vii). The “othering” of Black
women is a crucial piece in understanding the critical investigation of mainstream responses
to the work of a Black woman.
This is the complex environment that every Black female artist must navigate throughout her
career. As an artist, Beyoncé must then constantly tread the line between being taken
seriously as an artist and being oversexualized. An additional burden is the link between the
“infantilized Black girl” and the stereotype of the “Black male pimp” who, as DagbovieMullins writes, typically “looms close by” (2013, pp. 746-47). The Black woman in society is
therefore not only infantilized, but also usually portrayed as in need of the care and protection
14
of her “pimp daddy” (ibid). Moving away from the cultural implications this has for the
image of Black men, this thought process indicates that Black women are frequently viewed
as “less than” and without agency. The removal of agency from Black women in American
pop culture therefore places women who wish to rise to the top in a difficult position.
Agency and media power
Although this analysis pays particular attention to themes within popular culture, it is also
important to broaden the scope briefly to look at the media as a whole. This is essential given
the particular focus on agency that appears throughout this thesis. To begin looking at agency
within the context of the media, the concept of media power must be brought into the picture
(Corner, 2011). Looking at media power, its effects and who actually possess power within
the media is not only important for addressing issues of agency, but also to fully comprehend
the environment an artist like Beyoncé must navigate repeatedly in order to construct a
successful career. As described by Corner, the media possesses a kind of ‘soft power’
because of its ability to “contribute to the ‘way things are’ in a society” (2011, p. 14). This
power is not inherently tangible, therefore making it difficult to measure and substantiate,
which is why it is defined as ‘soft’, but nevertheless the media’s power has the ability to
shape society through images, narratives and discourse.
Other elements of Corner’s analysis of media power that hold particular relevance to this
analysis are the concepts of elite dominance and diversity. These concepts are especially
relevant given their links to postfeminism and the interpretation of postfeminism within
academic circles. Firstly, elite dominance as described by Corner is framed within the context
of politics, as is the majority of his discussion surrounding media power, however Corner’s
focus on the political does not preclude the understanding that it also applies to the cultural.
Elite dominance is the promotion of the ‘elite perspective’ within the media to support the
issues that are deemed of importance to the political, and cultural, elites of a society (2011, p.
24). The media system is structured in a way that gives preference to the prevailing narrative
that benefits the existing elites in society. This is important given that, depending on the
media landscape, elites then control the narratives being distributed throughout the media.
The link to the negative view of postfeminism exists within the sphere of this understanding,
as does the negative stereotypes attributed the Black women in popular culture. As previously
explained, the vast majority of the American media landscape is governed by large
15
corporations. These large corporations constitute “the elites” of the American media. This
puts them in explicit control over what messages are distributed by media. The negative view
of postfeminism posits that these messages are the counterpoint to the progressive feminism
of the second wave. Therefore, this view of postfeminism relies in part on the idea of elite
dominance of the media landscape.
Elite dominance is an important factor for consideration within the music industry in
particular. As Rebollo Gill and Moras write, this industry is predominantly controlled by
large “white-owned corporations” who are the keyholders for the distribution of music (2012,
p. 120). This is despite the outward appearance of Black ownership created through the high
number of record labels that appear to be owned and operated by members of the Black
community (ibid, p. 120). In the case of predominantly Black genres such as rap, hip hop and
R&B, the image of “Black success” is filtered through and by the lens of the elite dominance
of the white-controlled industry. This brings up the key concept of agency, specifically the
lack of agency Black artists face when it comes to their own music and image.
Pop culture, and in particular the music industry, is already fraught with issues for Black
artists, but this issue presents further battles for female artists. This is especially true for an
artist like Beyoncé, who must face various minefields of scrutiny. Referencing Danyell
Smith, Rebollo-Gil and Moras write that women in the rap/hip hop genre have to
simultaneously be firm but not too firm (2012, p. 127). This means that women within these
genres must concurrently present a persona that is both strong to be in line with the genre, but
not so powerful as to stray into the territory of men. The line between the two is not always
clear. Furthermore, lyrics written and sung by women are often viewed by the industry and its
fans as lacking credibility (Rebollo-Gil and Moras, 2012, p. 127). This results in a domino
effect in which women’s realities are discredited in favor of those put forward by the men of
the industry. With these impediments as a backdrop to her career, Beyoncé stands out even
more for her success as an artist. She is a Black woman in an industry outwardly dominated
by Black men, and controlled behind the scenes by white men, who has risen to success
despite the many cultural forces working against her through the media’s use of power of
symbolism, or ‘soft power’.
Beyoncé the feminist
Beyoncé’s methods for achieving her meteoric rise have made her a target of previous
16
academic inquiry. Much of the discussion centers on the use and incorporation of
sexualization and femininity into her personal brand (Weidhase, 2014; Cashmore, 2001).
There have also been discussions regarding her embrace of the title ‘feminist’ publicly,
particularly after the surprise release of her self-titled album in 2013. As Nathalie Weidhase
writes, “The [2013 Beyoncé] album therefore serves as a catalytic moment that frames the
themes of bodily and monetary control evident in her earlier work as explicitly feminist”
(2015, p.129). In other words, the strains of strength and empowerment that existed in
Beyoncé’s prior discography, she definitively labeled as feminist in the 2013 album. At the
2014 MTV Music Video Awards, she stood in front of a sign that spelled ‘feminist’ in large
letters.
In essence, this performance was Beyoncé’s public coming out as a feminist, and marked the
first explicit incorporation of feminist ideals into her work as a solo artist. This also made her
the center of discussion among feminists. Among the celebrations of Beyoncé’s open
feminism were sharp criticisms that derided her feminist stance as “tokenistic” and “feminism
lite” (Weidhase, 2015). Previous discussions surrounding the artist labeled her brand of
feminism as decidedly commercialized and lacking interactions with deeper feminist
discourse (Hamad and Taylor, 2015). These same accusations have been made about the
mainstream media’s own version of feminist discourse, thereby drawing the parallel with the
media culture surrounding feminism. For the purposes of this paper, mainstream media is
defined using the Oxford Dictionary as “traditional forms of mass communication, such as
newspaper, television, and radio regarded collectively” (Oxford Dictionary, 2016).
Much of the criticism surrounding Beyoncé and her embrace of feminist ideology centers on
her use of her body as an artist. Prominent feminist celebrities and theorists from Annie
Lennox to bell hooks4 have specifically pointed to Beyoncé’s sexualized image as
discrediting to the feminist ideals she promotes through her music. As Weidhase points out,
this is not necessarily a valid critique to rely on (2015). This critique represents the
assimilation of body regulation within general feminist discourse.
As Lisa Blackman writes, “talk of the body is always talk of the social context, social
practices and ideological processes that produce bodily matters” (2008, p. 17). To critically
address these main critiques of Beyoncé’s feminism, that is the criticism of her overtly sexual
4
hooks’ name is spelled using all lowercase as dictated by hooks herself
17
performances, it is important to understand the social and ideological issues that contribute to
this kind of criticism. Each of these critiques does not exist in a vacuum, but instead comes
from, or is attributable to, the expectations society has for women and for feminists. Lennox
and hooks are part of the second wave of feminism. Second wave feminism possesses a more
negative perception of the sexual or the sexualization of the female body. Therefore, Lennox
and hooks’ understandings of how feminists should present themselves publicly, particularly
those who position themselves as role models as Beyoncé does, is affected by their own
understandings of how sexuality should and should not be approached.
Thus, Beyoncé goes against their understanding, or perhaps their existing construction of
what it means to be feminist. Beyoncé’s approach falls outside of this understanding of
“feminism” thus incurring their criticism. This touches upon the concepts of social
constructionism and the socially constructed body, which are also addressed by Blackman,
who adds that the key to understanding the meaning of being human is to also understand the
construction and framing of ‘the body’ through ‘symbols’ and ‘discursive practices’ among
others (2008, p. 22). As feminism is a part of the human experience, it follows that the
importance of understanding the body also applies to it. Understanding the role of the body in
feminist theory and discourse takes on particular importance in the context of feminist
critique of popular culture, especially when this critique is based on pointing out so-called
issues with using the body, or sexualizing the body, in connection with feminist ideals.
Beyoncé and her work have become a battleground over the path of feminism in the United
States. The blending of self-declared feminist ideals into her personal brand, which covers
everything from music to movies and product lines, combines with her global prominence to
create the perfect storm that reflects the ongoing discussions surrounding postfeminism.
Simultaneously she also presents as an interesting case study on how celebrity agency is
viewed by mainstream journalism and mainstream culture in general. The battle over what
her work means touches on various interconnected disciplines of study, thereby adding to the
relevance of studying the cultural and sociological effect of her artistic works and
performances.
18
Method and Methodology
This look at Beyoncé and her latest album is a starting point for understanding the complex
issues surrounding postfeminism and agency as it applies to the issue of Black womanhood.
Beyoncé is one of the most well-known Black women in the world, therefore her celebrity
status grants a rare opportunity to view the mainstream media’s response to Black
womanhood being placed at the center of the pop culture spotlight in a positive way.
Using case studies for knowledge generation
Within the social sciences, the use of case studies to generate knowledge is contested. Some
within the field view case studies as lacking the rigorous scientific merit necessary to provide
structured and generalizable insight for social scientists. In his book Making Social Science
Matter, Bent Flyvbjerg pushes back against this negative view. He writes that the
understandings provided by case studies are what is necessary to move into the “higher levels
in the learning process” (2001, p.71). The analysis of particulars gives access to the type of
knowledge that makes it possible to learn and understand. Case studies provide the building
blocks of understanding and knowledge growth.
Flyvbjerg goes even further in his defense of case studies, writing that case studies provide an
antidote to the space that often exists between researchers and the target of their research. He
cautions against a gap between researcher and the object of research, referring to this
occurrence as something that can “lead to a stultified learning process” (2001, p.72).
Developing an understanding for the role of nuance is a fundamental part of research within
the social sciences (ibid). Case studies are a way of developing an eye for nuance.
Ultimately, the use of a case study for this thesis is important due to what is being analyzed.
In order to create a framework to understand the interaction between contemporary feminism
and popular culture, case studies of particular situations are necessary. This research seeks to
not only understand the aforementioned interaction, but also uncover the different levels of
interaction. In other words, this research is heavily invested in the nuances that are present in
this interaction. Utilizing a case study places this research in the best position to move
forward in creating this knowledge.
Focus on print newspaper
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With the rise of digital media, in turn spurring the growth of digital-only media platforms,
print media faces significant hurdles. Since the economic recession of 2008, sometimes called
the Great Recession, print news media has faced certain challenges in an evolving media
landscape (Mitchell and Holcomb, 2016). According to the Pew Research Center’s State of
the News Media 2016 report, while print media experienced declines in circulation during
20155, printed papers still remains a crucial part of the newspaper business (Barthel, 2016).
The Pew Research Center’s report points to a continued reliance by the American public on
print media sources, with print circulation consisting of approximately 78 percent of all
reported circulation during the week and going up to 86 percent for circulation on Sundays
(ibid, 2016). The steadfast popularity of print platforms is a main factor in deciding the
parameters for this study. Further data from this report shows that, of those who read
newspapers, approximately 51 percent of them report only reading the print form of
newspapers. The report refers to print as ‘a vital part of newspapers’ distribution picture’
(ibid, 2016). As print-only remains a popular form of consuming news media, it is therefore
relevant to turn to this section of the media to gain valuable insights about the kind of
information being disseminated to the general American public. The articles presented and
analyzed in this study are both digital and print media. They were found on the websites of
the top 10 American newspapers by circulation. These newspapers are: The New York Times,
The Washington Post, The LA Times, The New York Post, The Chicago Tribune. Collectively,
these newspapers have a circulation of over 8 million (Cision, 2016).
The focus on mainstream media sources, particularly those who have the highest circulation
rates within the United States, allows room to explore issues that fall within the concept of
media power. Media ownership within the United States is known to be highly concentrated,
with 97 percent of all media outlets owned by a handful of large corporations (Economides,
1999). This is particularly important to discuss in relation to the competing understandings of
postfeminism. Those that regard postfeminism negatively believe that the media and
advertising industries as using their influence in society to promote profits over substantial
progress for women. In essence, these industries are using a form of “bad media power.” As
Corner writes:
Nearly all ideas of ‘bad’ power have their grounding in perceptions about the
Pew’s State of the Media Report for 2016 covers data from 2015. As the 2017 report is yet to be
published, 2015 is the last year with this data available.
5
20
distortion to either knowledge or values, or both, which the media introduce into
general consciousness through their part in constructing the symbolic environment.
(2011, p. 23)
Those against postfeminism perceive the media’s role in the distortion in the values of the
feminist movement. Extrapolating from Corner’s discussion regarding this, the distortion is
therefore introduced to the general public through the mainstream media’s presentation of
‘the symbolic environment’ (Corner, 2011, p. 23). Beyoncé is a part of this symbolic
environment in her role as a celebrity, therefore rooting her within the media industry. As an
artist she also has a role to play in the construction and perpetuation of this role. Her
extraordinary success combined with the systemic societal and cultural obstacles an artist of
her race and gender faces within the music industry uniquely positions her and her music as a
case study for creating knowledge on the intersection between popular culture, popular music
and the how media approaches the concepts surrounding Black womanhood.
Rationale behind method
It is established that the selected news media outlets are representative news sources for a
significant amount of the American population. In order to analyze the output of these
sources, the selected method of data collection requires a historical grounding in media
research. Additionally, a focus on the analysis of cultural values is also necessary. As Anders
Hansen and David Manchin write in their book Media & Communication Research Methods,
content analysis has a long and notable history within communications and media research.
Although originally adopted and refined within political science, content analysis has been
used within media research for analyzing “how news, drama, advertising and entertainment
output reflect social and cultural issues, values and phenomena” (Hansen and Manchin 2013,
p. 86). The focus on values is particularly relevant to this study. At its core, this study seeks
to examine and understand the values displayed within America’s major news outlets. As this
study also encapsulates relevant socio-political issues, content analysis’ roots in political
science make it an appealing method of data collection and analysis.
David Altheide’s work on qualitative methods of analysing media was used in structuring the
approach to this research. His book Qualitative Media Analysis was used as the primary
starting point for the approach used throughout the analysis that follows. Because of the
various concepts and themes that are inherent to a research undertaking of this nature,
21
ethnographic content analysis (ECA), also called qualitative content analysis6, was used as
the primary method of conducting analysis of the chosen texts. The primary reason for
choosing ECA was to create more flexibility to allow for the emergence of new themes,
patterns, and points of discussion throughout the research process (Altheide and Schneider,
2013, p. 23). The inclusion of an ethnographic approach is important to this research as it
pays special attention to context and environment (ibid, p. 24). For the purposes of this thesis,
the media landscape in the United States, as well as the context of Black women within this
environment are central to developing knowledge with respect to the proposed research
questions. This was a central reason warranting the use of ethnographic content analysis.
Altheide’s approach is also valuable as it is specifically for the analysis of multiple
documents.
Using Altheide’s method as a guide, a protocol was developed to determine themes that
occurred throughout the selected texts (See Appendix A). This protocol collected the
following information: publication title, headline of the article, date of publication, section of
newspaper, word length of article, author, author’s gender, main focuses within the article,
descriptive language used, use of formal or informal language. The section on the focus of
the article was narrowed down into four subcategories in order to pinpoint relevant themes: a)
professional aspects of Beyoncé’s career; b) personal aspects of Beyoncé’s career and life; c)
the blending of both professional and personal; and d) discussions on Black womanhood and
femininity. The passages of text highlighted in this area of the protocol informed much of the
analytical process.
Sampling and Selection
The texts selected for this analysis were taken from 6 newspapers that are among the top 10
newspapers by circulation in the United States. The texts were selected for their focus on and
reactions to the release of the Lemonade album. Each newspaper is based within a major
metropolitan center of the United States, but is available in print form nationwide. Each
article was sourced via the online archives of each newspaper, but was controlled to ensure
they each appeared in print. Each article was chosen based on its focus on Beyoncé and the
album in the three-month period directly after the release of Lemonade. This means that all
6
In Qualitative Media Analysis, Altheide and Schneider begin by calling this method ethnographic
content analysis but then spend the rest of the book calling it qualitative content analysis.
22
articles are from the time period of 24 April 2016 to 24 July 2016. The 24th of April was the
day after the album was released on the streaming platform Tidal and the visual album was
broadcast on HBO. This time period was chosen in order to capture the mainstream media’s
most immediate reactions to the album and how they perceived its impact on American
culture.
23
Analysis of News Media Text
The analysis of the chosen articles revealed certain themes that together composed the overall
direction of the discussion surrounding the release of Lemonade within the mainstream
media. These themes mainly center on Beyoncé as an artist, as well as her personal influence
within and outside of the music industry. The themes connect and overlap with each other in
various ways, as will be addressed continually throughout the analysis in this section.
Understanding the interactions between these themes is a crucial part in fully grasping the
messages of the album as interpreted by the media, as well as exploring how this relates to
the larger discourses in society regarding Black women in positions of power. This analysis is
based on the selected news media articles and touches upon various theoretical frameworks
including: postfeminism, feminist media studies, and celebrity studies. In particular it will
explore the areas in which these concepts and areas of study overlap to form a clearer picture
of Black womanhood from a postfeminist perspective. The focus on celebrity studies is
important due to the special circumstances of Beyoncé’s fame, and the uniqueness of her
position as a Black female celebrity. Special attention will also be paid to the idea of agency
and power, which are central concepts to this analysis and flows through the various theories
previously discussed.
Discussions of Black womanhood and feminism
The first theme that is on display prominently throughout the texts was the central role of
Black women and the associations with Black womanhood. Given the politically charged
nature of the album, and the time surrounding the album’s release, it is not surprising that
each article mentions the running theme, specifically the meaning of Black womanhood in
the United States. Even more specifically, the texts discuss the suffering that Black women
face in their daily lives in the United States. One moment noted by some writers was the brief
monologue by the late civil rights leader, Malcolm X, that was interspersed in a moment
between songs in the visual album. This moment was described as such by one writer:
But she’s daring to think beyond herself. The heavy hangover of the piece involves
what lots of men have done to lots of women, Black women in particular. Between
songs we hear Malcolm X intone that no one has had it rougher than they have. Think
about what it takes to make lemonade. You have to split open a lot of citrus, remove
the seeds, strain for pulp and add a lot of sugar. It’s a process. Black women are good
at lemonade. (Morris, 2016)
24
Here, Morris not only describes this moment, but extrapolates from it an understanding of the
meaning of the album name itself. He draws out the metaphor of lemonade and consciously
connects it to the message of the struggle of Black women. Not only is this is a description of
one of the most notable moments in the visual album, but it explicitly discusses the injustices
faced by Black women in the United States and then touches on the effect such injustices
have on Black women in general. This is seen in the final sentence, “Black women are good
at lemonade”. The same moment is addressed differently in another text, as follows:
In one section, Malcolm X intones: ‘The most disrespected woman in America is the
Black woman. The most unprotected person in America is the Black woman. The
most neglected woman in America is the Black woman.’ Elsewhere, the mothers of
Black men killed by police, including Michael Brown and Eric Garner, appear on the
screen holding photos of their loved ones (Kennedy, 2016).
There is a major difference in how this one moment is described between these two articles.
The first quote initially links more generally to the ongoing theme of the Black female
experience with language such as, “what lots of men have done to lots of women.” However,
the second quote draws the line more directly to the image of other Black women represented
throughout the film accompanying the album. What both writers note, in their own way, is
Beyoncé’s use of her very public platform to include women of color besides herself and to
incorporate their stories of pain and suffering into the larger narrative. The inclusion of these
women serves as a visual development to and answer for the question, “What does it mean to
be a Black woman in the United States?” The most general understanding of this theme is
offered by yet another writer who says, “The HBO companion film released in tandem with
‘Lemonade’…offers a new way into the album, a political and cultural take on the struggles
of Black women” (Ali, 2016). Therefore as a whole, the combined film and songs provide a
narrative of the lives of Black women for a general audience. Given Beyoncé’s status as a
celebrity and her influence, this is significant as she is seen to use her platform to highlight
some of the issues that are deemed particularly problematic for Black women in the United
States.
Emerging from this discussion is an accepted understanding of how Beyoncé is bringing
forward the discussion surrounding what it means to be a Black woman in the United States.
Specifically, they all agree that the album directly addresses the pain of Black womanhood.
One example of this comes from The New York Times:
“Lemonade” feels like a cultural rebuke on behalf of lots of aching women, whether
25
they’re standing on that plantation porch, watching from their living rooms, or
running for president. (Morris, 2016)
Morris’ focuses initially on the cultural aspects of this album, however, later in the article he
also writes the following:
Throughout, Black women are standing, sitting, phalanxed on the porches of what feel
like plantations and antiquated houses, rich with pain. The cameras get in close on
beautiful faces that lack pigment, that bear scars, burns and sorrow. The mothers of
slain young men exude regal stoicism, holding photographs of their sons. (Morris,
2016)
These quotes carry a substantial focus on, and incorporations of, the happenings in
contemporary American culture. Most importantly the focus is centered on discussing the
narratives of Black women. These discussions directly addressing Black womanhood
indicates two things: first, a shift to collapse the gap between the discussions of what can be
discussed as “low culture” versus “high culture”, previously extrapolated and expanded from
Hesmondhalgh’s argument (2013) as it pertains to Blackness; and second a move away from
the four strict stereotypes generally allowed to Black women within popular culture
(Woodard and Mastin, 2005).
In his discussion of high culture versus low culture, Hesmondhalgh refers to the work of
Bourdieu and the link between culture and inequality (2013, p. 8). Bourdieu’s work showed
that the determinants that distinguish high culture from low culture grow from the same
processes that create the structure for inequality within society (ibid). This is supported by
Brown who writes that Black entertainers, particularly Black female entertainers, faced
segregation in their daily lives (2001). This was compounded by the various forms of
discrimination they faced within the entertainment industry (ibid). Therefore, given the
history of inequality suffered by the Black community within the United States, the
discussion of Black women in these articles is progressive because of the focus on Black
female narratives. That Black women are at the center of these discussions in the media is
significant because of the acknowledgement of the history of Black women, deeming their
stories worthy of discussing, reducing the artificial barriers that create the division between
high and low culture.
One of the stereotypes discussed by Woodard and Mastin is that of the matriarch. As they
describe the matriarch:
She represents the image of the Black woman as a mother within the Black home. The
26
1960s Moynihan Report solidified this image within the minds of many Americans
with the image of a controlling, emasculating Black woman who dictated to both her
children and her man their place in the home (2005, p. 271).
It is important to bring up this particular stereotype because of the focus on both ordinary
Black women and the mothers of Black men killed by police officers. The inclusion of
images of these Black mothers in the discussion of Lemonade could be misinterpreted as a
validation of this stereotype, however given the definition of the matriarch as presented
above, the opposite is actually true. These articles allow for different aspects of Black
motherhood to be put forward, paying particular attention to something other than
emasculation, aggression, and pain. This defies the matriarch stereotype as it allows for a
greater variety of human emotion for Black women. These women are written about as
experiencing the pain of loss, and while they are still being discussed within a maternal role
bearing some similarities to “the matriarch”, it is done in a way that pays attention to a
different facet of human emotion than that allowed under the matriarch archetype. The
previously quoted texts use words such as: “aching”, “pain”, “scars, burns and sorrow”, and
“struggles.” These are the words these journalists have used in their summary of Black
womanhood as presented by Lemonade. They all point to a common theme, Beyoncé using
her own personal pain to represent the pain of Black womanhood in general:
Rage, bitterness, revenge, heartbreak, pain and reconciliation are addressed here with
records offering plenty of nods toward her own relationship – and her back work – all
of which is intertwined through womanhood, particularly Black womanhood.
(Kennedy, LA Times, 2016)
The recognition of a greater theme surrounding Black womanhood is of the most significance
in these discussions. The discourse is not just about Beyoncé’s singular pain, but how that
pain is shared and amplified through the lens of Black womanhood. The association between
“Black womanhood” and the various emotions stated in this quote are important because this
is an expansion on the emotions previously allowed through the four stereotypes as described
by Woodard and Mastin, creating some flexibility for the representation and perception of
Black women in society. Furthermore, the discussion of Black womanhood itself represents
the inclusion of the Black female narrative within acknowledged culture. The
acknowledgement of the pain Black women endure within the context of music and popular
27
culture fits into the gap outlined in Hesmondhalgh’s argument pertaining to “low culture” and
“high culture.” In his outlining of the definition of these terms, Hesmondhalgh points to
inequalities affecting the worth of culture, specifically pointing to gender and class divisions
(2005, p. 4). Adding race inequality to this mix, it is easier to understand the complexities
inherent in discussions of culture and how they inform the general narratives and discourses
surrounding it.
Influence within music industry
Beyoncé’s influence within the industry is also a common theme that appears throughout the
analyzed news texts. Most of these discussions refer back to the previous release of the 2013
album Beyoncé, which came as a surprise to the artist’s fans, and the music industry as a
whole. One writer describes the ripple effects of the release of this album in the following
way:
The phrase ‘pulling a Beyoncé’ was coined to describe the uptick of high-profile acts
releasing bodies of work without fanfare, and she shattered iTunes’ sales records,
logging more than 617,200 downloads in just three days. (Kennedy LA Times)
The phrase ‘pulling a Beyoncé’ is what is most indicative of just how much influence the
artist has gained in her decades in the industry. Her name is not only used to discuss her
music, but also to name a growing trend within pop music. The importance of this ability to
impact the industry is best summarized as such:
In an era when many other female pop stars don’t seem to have much say over their
destiny, “Lemonade” speaks to Beyoncé’s power...Rare is the woman in pop music
who enters the game with control over her own career – artistically or in business and
money matters – and there aren’t many other genres that champion female voices
today. (Ali, LA Times)
However, one crucial aspect of this achievement is overlooked in favor of the bigger picture.
The focus in all of these texts is geared towards how revolutionary Beyoncé’s position is as a
woman of power and consequence within the industry. What is not acknowledged is how
important these successes are because they have been accomplished by a Black woman. This
particular failure of acknowledgement will be addressed in a later section.
28
In addition to the attention paid to her current position of power, some writers also noted her
evolution to reach this point in her career. A common theme throughout the articles analyzed
was the road to her status as a pop megastar and cultural touchstone. Many spent part of their
reviews and analyses of Lemonade discussing the evolution of the star’s career alongside her
public persona. One notable point of discussion was brought up by Lorraine Ali of the Los
Angeles Times who wrote the following:
Now 34, she’s evolved from a teen managed by her father in the girl group Destiny’s
Child to a woman who knows how to manipulate the system that created her in the
first place (Ali, LA Times, 2016).
This mention of the role of the singer’s father is reminiscent of the idea that women within
the genres of rap and hip hop are in need of a male influence to guide them. In this case,
Beyoncé’s career has been perceived as fostered and developed primarily by a male figure
who also happens to be her father, Matthew Knowles. The career trajectory outlined in Ali’s
article is one that demonstrates a shift in decision-making ability, or agency, from the male
figure standing on the sidelines, to the female figure who has always been the central figure
in the spotlight. Ali’s words here shadow the idea that Black women face the danger of being
constantly infantilized and dependent on help from a male figure (Dagbovie-Mullins, 2013).
The mentioning of her management by her father serves as a tacit reminder of this
dependence Black women are seen to need to survive within the industry. However, this
quote shows the beginning of a shift away from the acceptance of female infantilization. Ali’s
article in particular focuses on Beyoncé’s clear agency professionally. A continuation of this
acknowledgement of agency is presented in a different way in other texts. Namely, the
delegation of agency over her life as it is represented to the general public. In this case, the
word “control” is used by writers instead of agency.
Controlling the narrative: the role of agency
A major theme that was incorporated into every article was, what the writers considered to
be, a surprising blend of the personal and the public represented throughout the album. All
articles analyzed mentioned the sharp departure Lemonade represented for Beyoncé as a
notoriously private pop star.
29
Mention of infidelity and a troubled relationship are running themes throughout
“Lemonade,” a bold move given that Beyoncé’s long career has been one of carefully
curated public displays, solo and with her husband Jay-Z (Kennedy, LA Times).
Beyoncé’s aversion to publicize her life, as opposed to many other American celebrities, is
well-documented. An example of this preference for heightened privacy is her marriage to
rapper Jay-Z being kept secret, only becoming public four months after it occurred.
Furthermore, the star is well-known for tightly controlling her public image even outside of
her family life. This is described by journalists as a desire to portray herself as perfect and
untouchable, “For decades…Beyoncé has projected an air of perfection…[she] always
appeared slightly above her audience — remote, untouchable” (Kot, 2016). This ideal of
perfection is mentioned again by the Los Angeles Times:
It’s a revealing look at a woman who’s spent the past two decades striving for pop
perfection with precision dance moves and audacious anthems of female
empowerment and sexuality (Kennedy, LA Times, 2016).
These quotes reflect a pre-existing understanding of Beyoncé, that the expected norm for her
is that of a “remote” and “untouchable” pop star. In many ways this perspective, while
seeming to grant the star agency over her career and the choices she makes within her role as
a celebrity, it essentially strips her of humanity. The language selected in these texts paints as
a star unwilling, or perhaps unable, to reveal the more human sides of her life.
This view is partially informed by the evolution of ‘celebrity’ within the context of the
American music and film industries. As Williams writes, in the beginning of the Hollywood
era (also referred to as “Old Hollywood”), studios often found it more beneficial and
profitable to blend the public and private lives of their stars (2007, p. 114). This system
stripped stars of agency and fed a culture that opened the private lives of celebrities for fans
and gossips. Given the amount of material written about celebrities in dedicated gossip
tabloids, it is more remarkable when a celebrity is successful in tightly controlling what news
does, and does not, make it into mainstream outlets. Additionally, in a time of “overexposed”
celebrities and countless “reality” shows which create new celebrities, Beyoncé as a celebrity
shirks the renewed openness expected from modern celebrities, reminiscent of Old
Hollywood. Of course, this control over privacy does not prevent stories about the star from
making it to the presses, but as noted by all the journalists in this research, she has had more
success in controlling her outward image than many other celebrities.
30
The discussion of Beyoncé’s heightened control over her public image shares similarities
with another aspect of Corner’s discussion surrounding media power. Corner writes:
It is worth noting that it is now a routine assumption in most societies that the media
do have power... most public and commercial organisations carry out their work, most
obviously their publicity work, with the premise that media outputs can exert a
significant degree of power over both public and private corporate perceptions and
therefore bring about changes to the ‘action frames’ within which they operate (2011,
p. 15, his emphasis).
This same understanding of media power and the corporate recognition of it can also be
applied to personal public relations within popular culture and the celebrity sphere. Replacing
“public and commercial organisations” with the term “public figures” brings about the same
understanding. As a public person, and one who has been in the public eye for two decades,
Beyoncé surely understands the importance of accounting for media power. Thus the
increased attention being paid to her image. It is therefore doubly interesting for this focus on
perfection to be noted by news media outlets who are in essence acknowledging their own
power but this acknowledgement is done unconsciously and lacking self-reflexivity. To be
more explicit, there is no acknowledgement that Beyoncé “perfect” and “precise” image is
created in response to the power the media has over shaping perceptions and feelings, which
is of particular importance within the celebrity sphere where image is seen as everything.
What occurs in these articles is therefore a reference to Beyoncé’s need to moderate risk
pertaining to her image. Corner refers to, “ the different kinds of ‘benefit’ and of ‘harm’ to
which the powers of media can contribute, if not solely bring about” (2011, p. 15). In
Beyoncé’s case, this means assessing all possible “benefit” and “harm” media power can
have on her career in the spotlight.
This previous understanding of Beyoncé’s relationship with her public persona is therefore
challenged by the personal nature of this latest album release. To the writers of these various
texts, this departure from the established norm represents two things; first, Beyoncé is using
her own pain and intertwining that with the pain of others to provide a platform to amplify
the pain of Black womanhood; and second, the star’s desire to take control of her own
narrative within popular culture. Whereas celebrity agency has been sidestepped by the
media, who choose to create its own version of “star narratives” (Williams 2007, p.114),
31
Beyoncé represents another path forward. She is seen as bridging the gap between
maintaining her private life, while simultaneously offering a window into her world:
The album is a peek – or the illusion of a peek – into the life of pop’s most imageconscious star (Ali, LA Times, 2016).
The motivation to control the narrative surrounding her personal life is especially important
considering previous stories that have emerged about the singer’s personal life. These stories
dominated tabloids prior to the album’s release. As one newspaper wrote:
Anyone who’s been waiting for Beyoncé to explain the infamous elevator incident of
2014, in which her sister Solange was caught on tape hurling blows at Jay Z while
Beyoncé looked calmly on, might find satisfaction in “Lemonade”. (Wood, LA
Times, 2016)
This quote is the most explicit reference, in all of the texts reviewed, to an infamous incident
which has proved to be, thus far, the biggest scandal of the pop star’s career and life in the
public eye. In May 2014, Solange Knowles, Beyoncé’s younger sister was caught on security
camera footage physically assaulting her brother-in-law inside an elevator at an afterparty for
a high-profile celebrity event while her sister looked on.
Tabloids were filled with speculations about why Solange attacked her brother-in-law the
way she did. One of the most prevailing theories that was put forward was that he had been
unfaithful during his marriage. As a website dedicated to celebrity news wrote at the time:
It turns out the family feuding, which was caught on tape and released earlier this
week, occurred on the night of Monday, May 5, because Beyoncé's man got a little
too close with designer Rachel Roy, who's the ex-wife of his business partner Damon
Dash (Malec, E!Online, 2014).
Similar allegations of cheating as the reason behind the violent confrontation between
Solange and Jay Z appeared in other celebrity magazine and the entertainment sections of
other newspapers (Siemaszko, New York Daily News, 2015; Joshi, IB Times, 2015).
Therefore, for Lemonade to be perceived as a direct acknowledgement and answer to this
incident, especially given the secretive nature of the pop star and her family life, is especially
important to the understanding of the narrative surrounding her life. While her career was
never in any perceptible danger, her image of a perfect life appeared to be rattled by this
event. The intense coverage generated by the elevator incident marked a rare loss of control
over the narrative of her public image and persona. That the album was interpreted as an
answer to this loss of control allows for Beyoncé to regain the control lost during this public
32
relations crisis.
This points to a crucial understanding of Beyoncé as an artist and as a woman. Throughout
the course of her career, she has evolved to understand the business and its various demands
in a way that means that she now has agency like few other pop stars who enjoy her level of
success. Beyoncé is deemed by the media as capable of steering the narrative of her life in a
way few others, particularly women, can do within the music industry. The fact that she is
awarded agency by these writers is worthy of note. Her ability to achieve this agency is
directly attributed to both her experience within the industry and her success.
Ownership and agency
Expanding on the focus on agency, many outlets also pointed out the album’s release on the
streaming service Tidal. Tidal is an artist-owned music streaming service launched jointly
owned by Jay Z and Beyoncé, and partially owned by various other well-known artists such
as Rihanna and Kanye West7. That Beyoncé released her visual album on this platform points
to her authorship over the creative process of the album. Owning the platform on which her
music is initially released, gives the artist control over how and when it is released. Much like
how actress Barrymore took control over the projects she worked on by creating her own
production company (Williams 2007, p. 111), Beyoncé has also exercised a similar level of
authorship by co-founding Tidal, a means of distributing her music, and her own
entertainment and management company, Parkwood Entertainment.
However, while articles mentioned that the album was initially exclusive to streaming service
Tidal, many neglected to mention that Beyoncé was in fact a co-owner of the service in her
own right. Interestingly, while articles often ignored Beyoncé’s ownership, whenever the
service was mentioned, it was usually discussed in conjunction with Jay Z’s ownership. Some
examples of this are as follows:
The album, which popped up on the rapper’s streaming service Tidal (Kennedy, Los
Angeles Times, 2016),
[the album was] made available to stream...exclusively on Tidal, the music streaming
service owned by her husband, Jay Z (Coscarelli, New York Times, 2016).
Another longer quote captures the context in which ownership of Tidal was usually
7
Tidal claims to be the first High Fidelity (HiFi) music streaming service, owned by artists. It launched
in 2014.
33
discussed:
Any wife who outs her husband on an album and in an hour-long video as a cheater,
then makes him release that album on his streaming platform – exclusively – is having
her cake and making him eat it, too. (Morris, NYT, his emphasis)
Once again, the service is labeled as Jay Z’s without any acknowledgement that Beyoncé also
has a financial stake in the business. Interestingly, here the business is discussed in domestic
terms, framing it as a medium for airing out marital discord instead of as a business at all.
The failure to acknowledge Beyoncé’s ownership, while freely acknowledging her husband’s
points back to the previously discussed trope of Black women being perceived as needing the
protection or help of a male figure (Dagbovie-Mullins, 2013). In this case, Beyoncé’s behindthe-scenes control is diminished and transferred to her husband. He can therefore be seen as
the keyholder to the distribution of her music, instead of her being framed as being in control
of the business choices behind the production and distribution of the music. In these articles,
as the man with the distribution platform, Jay Z is painted as the one with the power.
Although Morris’ words indicate that he sees Beyoncé as wielding situational power by
seemingly forcing the release of her album on the platform, thus publicly “outing” Jay Z as a
cheater, as the owner of the streaming platform, Jay Z is still ultimately placed in the position
of power that truly matters.
The acknowledgement of her agency is further complicated by other factors. Some journalists
clearly assigned agency to Beyoncé for the creative choices made to bring the visual album to
life. This is reflected in the language used by some writers including the following:
But “Lemonade” was clearly conceived as a complete work, and Beyoncé’s unifying
vision for what could have been a prettily packaged hodgepodge should not be
discounted (Kot, Chicago Tribune, 2016).
Here, Kot attributes the “unifying vision” of the piece directly to Beyoncé and no one else.
Elsewhere in this article, Kot writes about the various other contributors to the Lemonade
project, both songwriters and directors for the film, who were mostly men. Despite the fact
that many others in the creative process were men, Beyoncé is given all the creative credit. In
another articles that were analyzed, writers used distinctive language indicating their belief of
Beyoncé’s control and agency. Writer Lorraine Ali once again writes:
When Beyoncé returns to the sold-out [Rose Bowl] as a solo act this weekend, she
does so knowing her relationship with her rap mogul spouse will once again be front
and center. Why? Because she put it there. (Ali, Los Angeles Times, 2016)
34
Of particular note in this quote is the last sentence. It acknowledges a clear intent in the
artist’s actions in her release of the album. It is implied that she was alone in the decisionmaking process and made this decision based on her own motivations.
Ali’s quote also represents the blending together of the acceptance of Beyoncé’s agency both
as an artist and as a wife. As a celebrity married to another celebrity, Beyoncé is aware of the
constant gossip and speculation surrounding her marriage. This speculation was intensified in
the aftermath of the infamous elevator incident. The album represented an opportunity for her
to not only display her side of the conversation, but also to generate more favorable
discussions about her life by using her craft. This is the acknowledgement that lies at the
heart of the previously quoted text. It is acknowledged clearly, by multiple journalists, that
she has deliberately chosen to place her personal life at the center of the discussion as a way
of taking control of the narrative, thereby publicly claiming her agency. More examples of
this can be seen in the following quotes:
Throughout the special, she walked through fire...she dismantled every notion of her
public persona through songs that cut across electronic R&B, country, blues, rock,
soul, trap, folk and piano balladry. (Kennedy, Los Angeles Times 2016)
This quote points to the perception of a systematic ‘dismantling’ of how the public perceives
her. This is acknowledged by these journalists to be a part of the process of controlling the
narrative that is disseminated through pop culture channels. This is summarized by Ali in one
sentence, “Beyoncé has learned how to fight back” (Los Angeles Times, 2016).
This view of Beyoncé fits into a larger discussion surrounding female celebrities not only
being given agency, but also being positively recognized for it. In her discussion of actor
Drew Barrymore, Rebecca Williams writes,
In those rare instances when female celebrities are seen to exercise control over their
public personas and have ‘serious’ careers, they are often masculinized, whilst those
who are explicitly coded via female sexuality are presumed to lack agency and the
ability to control their own careers (2007, p. 112).
The discussions captured in the course of this research deviate from this understanding of the
intersection of femininity and celebrity. For the most part, in reviews and reactions to
Lemonade within mainstream media, Beyoncé is deemed to have control over her career
without being masculinized in the same way Williams points out celebrities like Madonna
were stripped of their femininity (2007). Beyoncé is treated and acknowledged as an active
35
author of how her life is portrayed within mainstream media.
With all of these points considered, the acknowledgement of Beyoncé’s agency as an artist
can be split into two general groups: those who acknowledge her creative agency as an artist,
and those that recognize her agency both as an artist and as a producer. The latter group
award her agency both in front of and behind the microphone and camera.
The economics of Black womanhood and recognition
However, despite the attention given to Beyoncé’s success in a hostile environment for
women, little attention is paid to how this is particularly exceptional given the lack of
powerful women of color. None of the texts analyzed framed this influence from the
perspective of a woman of color overcoming the double obstacles faced by both her gender
and her race. As discussed above, all texts brought attention to the focus the visual album had
on the shared experiences of Black womanhood in the United States. They also touched upon
the agency Beyoncé displays in her creative choices throughout the process of creating the
album, even if they were unsuccessful in recognizing her agency in the distribution and
business decisions surrounding the album’s release. However, no clear link is consistently
drawn between these two points to create a narrative that focuses on the success of a Black
woman in an environment that is hostile towards her. There is never any clear
acknowledgement of Beyoncé’s space, not only as an active agent but specifically as a Black
female active agent.
The recognition of Beyoncé as having active agency while bearing the dual identity of a
Black woman carries weight, particularly in an entertainment environment that does not
particularly provide for creative spaces for Black women to be active authors on their own. In
addition to the hostilities towards active female voices within Black-dominated music genres
such as rap, hip hop and R&B (Dagbovie-Mullins, 2013), Black women are also routinely
denied active authorship in other parts of the media. Firstly, the American media landscape is
one that is immensely consolidated, with 97 percent of all media in the country owned by six
large media conglomerates (Economides, 1999).
The condensation of the American media environment can largely be traced back to the
Telecommunications Act of 1996, which deregulated the media industry, leading to large
non-media companies taking vested interest in taking over American media companies
36
(Economides, 1999). The Pew Research Center also noted a major trend towards
consolidation within the newspaper industry specifically in its annual State of the Media
Report (Barthel, 2016). Barthel specifically points out that three of the industry’s largest
companies have recently combined to form one large conglomerate (ibid, p. 2). The
newspaper industry is following in the footsteps of the larger trend being set within the media
industry of the United States. The privatization of American media therefore has direct links
to the criticisms laid out by those who view postfeminism skeptically. The concentration of
media power to a few elite corporations has a direct effect on the outlook of the media
landscape. It is an increasingly commercialized and money-driven environment because these
corporations are heavily concerned with generating as much profit as possible (Economides,
1999). The main attack used against postfeminists, ostensibly mostly used by second wave
feminists, is that it promotes certain perspectives of feminism purely for financial gain.
Therefore, the privatization of the American media is a factor in this perception of the misuse
and bastardization of feminist ideals for financial gain.
In addition to the increased pressure to prioritize economics and profits, these spaces are
overwhelmingly male and white, as 15 billionaires and billionaire families have ownership
over all of the major media outlets within the United States (Vinton, 2016). As addressed
previously, these white men are the “elites” of the American media, the ones with most of the
decision-making power and thus the power over distributing and prioritizing media messages.
As Corner writes:
Neither history nor contemporary analysis provide us with clear examples of a
political or social system in which elites do not seek to exercise a degree of control
over media activities and particularly over what ‘gets said’ by the media (Corner,
2011, p.20, his emphasis).
Consequently, the lack of influence Black women have in these important media positions
not only call into question issues concerning media power, but acutely points to a need for
stronger acknowledgement of these minority voices, given that there is little room for Black
female voices to be consistently acknowledged.
Even in spaces that claim to be dedicated to Black women, there remain few opportunities for
true active agency. Woodard and Mastin point out that United States-based magazine Essence
which claims to be written by Black women for Black women, and presented as an extension
of the history of Black feminism, is in fact “owned and operated by Black men” (Woodard
37
and Mastin 2005, p. 265). Woodard and Mastin further go on to explain that Black men also
maintain patriarchy that is informed, partially, by the patriarchy perpetuated by white men
(2005, p. 265). Taking into consideration this framework of patriarchy imposed by Black men
and adding this to the ownership Black men have over, what on the surface appear to be,
Black women spaces, it is doubly important to acknowledge the active agency of women
within the entertainment and media spheres. However, this final piece is predominantly left
out of the discussions surrounding Beyoncé’s Lemonade album. This is despite some
journalists incorporating how the album addressed the societal and cultural issues faced by
Black women in the United States. Additionally, nearly all writers brought in aspects
concerning the importance of the star being able to control the conversation surrounding her
private life. However, as discussed in the previous section, these discussions often failed to
fully recognize just how much power and influence the star truly has over the production and
creative process surrounding the album’s creation. In some cases, not only was some of her
agency ignored, but agency was implicitly transferred to her husband, Jay Z. This is seen
through the language that described Tidal as “her husband’s” streaming service.
The lack of discussion about this level of importance indicates a level of ignorance within the
journalistic community, at least in the segment of journalism that touches on popular culture.
This ignorance serves as a tool to invalidate the full repercussions of this album, as well as
render invisible the lack of control Black women continue to have over their own images on a
societal and systemic level. As a public figure, Beyoncé exhibits a form of agency that is
rarely seen for a woman in her position, this much is recognized in certain texts. Interestingly,
the most explicit language pointing this out was used by a female writer, Lorraine Ali, in her
text.
Link to feminism and postfeminism
Lemonade is a dynamic album not only because of its status as a “visual album”,
encompassing both the visual and the auditory, but also because of the dual context inherent
to its medium. It is still within the framework of capitalism as it is still created for the express
purpose of mass distribution and consumption, but it is also positioned as a feminist text. In
many ways, it stands as an answer to feminist critiques of Beyoncé that existed prior to its
release. Lemonade appears, and is perceived, as a text constructed by Beyoncé to directly
38
address issues concerning Black women in particular. However, no matter the intentions of
the artist, it is important to analyze what themes relevant to feminism and the discussion
surrounding postfeminism can be identified from the mainstream media’s own analysis of the
album.
The first thing that must be acknowledged is that this album is, no matter the messages
Beyoncé intended to convey, still a production made for mass consumption in line with
Beyoncé’s role as a businesswoman and business owner. Beyoncé’s role as a businesswoman
is acknowledged within the articles analyzed:
the pop star as queen, a mother of dragons who empowered her followers by always
doing all the right things as an artist, a pop star...a fashionista...a feminist, a
businesswoman (Kot, LA Times, 2016)
Once again as previously noted, Beyoncé’s full role as a businesswoman is rarely
acknowledged, as her role as co-owner of Tidal is rarely mentioned and her ownership of
Parkwood Entertainment is never brought up in any of the texts. This points to a divergence
where Beyoncé is understood as a businesswoman but not as a business owner. Being
acknowledged as a “business owner” would indicate greater active agency and ability to
make important decisions on the direction of both companies, instead of being seen as being
good at creating profit.
As stated, her role as businesswoman is generally addressed, which underscores the fact that
Lemonade is still a capitalist venture and must be considered as such. This is ultimately the
issue that places it within the sphere of postfeminism. Postfeminism deals acutely with the
combination of capitalist pursuits and feminist ideals. There can be no doubt then that
Lemonade is a postfeminist text. The complicating factor within postfeminist theory, that is
the source of such discord within the general feminist community, is whether the intersection
of these two things serves to help or hurt the feminist cause. In all of these texts, Beyoncé’s
brand of feminism is viewed favorably. There are no challenges that indicate conflict between
capitalism and feminism. Of course, the feminists that view postfeminism negatively argue
that this lack of conflict is due to the cozy relationship the media enjoys with this kind of
feminism. In fact, one of the only points of agreement on all sides concerning postfeminism
is that is emerged from the media and advertising industries.
39
Conclusion
In broad terms, the controversy surrounding postfeminism is really an evaluation of media
power as discussed by Corner (2011). The skeptical view of postfeminism regards it as elite
control of media gone mad, with the added sting of the coopting of feminist principles and
ideals that have been fought for during decades of resistance and activism. Buried within this,
is the question of agency. Namely, the diminishment of agency in favor of a capitalist version
which is a simulation of the real thing. However, through analyzing the case of Beyoncé’s
Lemonade in the media it is seen that these positions of postfeminism are problematic and
require nuance. However, postfeminist optimists view it as a necessary development of
feminism to reach out to more women through mainstream channels and bring about a more
engageable form of feminism (Genz and Brabon, 2009). In this perspective, postfeminism is a
force for good and positions feminism to be more inclusive. The desired side effect of this
inclusivity is to grant more women agency and enhancing their relationship to feminism.
Once again agency is at the center of this understanding of postfeminism.
Overall, the themes that came through in this analysis are those of representation, Black
womanhood, agency and media power. Each of these overlap and influence each other in
ways that reveal more of the complexities inherent to contemporary feminism and its
relationship to feminism. Lemonade was a cultural phenomenon remarkable not just for its
success but for its success as a cultural text that deliberately placed Black women at the
center of its dialogue. Beyoncé’s role as a celebrity placed her in a position of influence
where she was able to highlight these experiences of Black womanhood. This influential
positioning was highlighted by the analyzed texts, which repeatedly acknowledged her
consequential position within the entertainment industry.
The first important issue to be addressed concerning the album’s relationship with feminism
is how it fits into the existing roles society has set for Black women. As postfeminist
optimists see representation as part of the concept (Genz and Brabon, 2009), situating
Lemonade within postfeminism is linked to the media discourse it reveals about how Black
women are represented in the United States. The four main stereotypes for Black women are
the mammy, the matriarch, the sexual siren, and the welfare queen (Woodard and Mastin,
2005; Bobo, 1995).These stereotypes as described by Woodard and Mastin relied on onedimensional portrayals of women, disallowing Black women from being portrayed with
40
multiple layers of human emotion.
Among these was the sexual vixen, a woman deemed to be focused only on seducing men.
She is overtly sexual and dressed specifically to entice men (Bobo, 1995). The texts analyzed
bear no direct reinforcement of these stereotypes and they do not directly address them within
the context of the album. However, the discussions analyzed indicated some advancement in
the images of Black women in popular culture. Beyoncé’s previous work was seen to put her
in line with this portrayal of Black women as it was deemed to be too focused on sexuality
(Weidhase, 2015). The allegations regarding sexuality combined with Beyoncé’s previous
claims of being a feminist placed her in the firing line of postfeminist critics and well-known
feminist scholars (ibid). But it the pre-existing sexual vixen stereotype that is so pervasive
within American society is an important reason for problematizing these views of Beyoncé’s
previous ‘feminist’ moves.
The focus of the sexual and objectification of the female body, a relic of the second wave of
the feminist movement, is in danger of grounding itself within this stereotype of Black
women. In fact, this runs up against Blackman’s discussion of the social construction of the
body (2008). Pulling these two threads together, what is revealed is that the Black female
body is not only socially constructed negatively, but this can leave it open to unreflexive
criticism from certain branches of the feminist movement. Ultimately, this is part of the
rationale behind utilizing the more positive perspective of postfeminism as a tool for
approaching the discussions throughout this analysis.
Among these scholars critical of Beyoncé’s work is intersectional feminist bell hooks.
Hooks’ skepticism of Beyoncé’s Lemonade translated into her text “Moving Beyond Pain”
(2016) in which she criticizes the singer for allegedly conforming to pre-existing stereotypes
of Black women centered on victimhood. This criticism does not entirely correlate with the
discussions of Black womanhood present in the texts reviewed for this research. In fact, what
is seen is an increased willingness to attribute agency to a Black woman in a position of
power. Once again this becomes an issues of nuance, because while agency is awarded to
Beyoncé, in some significant ways it is also ignored.
What is significant in this analysis is not just what is present, but also what is missing from
this overarching media dialogue. Unfortunately, there still exist limitations in the extent to
which the media addressed the agency an artist like Beyoncé possesses as well as the
41
significance of this agency. While they acknowledge her agency in making the visual and
lyrical choices for the album, they often ignored her agency behind-the-scenes. As previously
stated, she is not only a singer and songwriter, but the co-owner of the music streaming
platform the album was released on, Tidal, and the founder and owner of the entertainment
and management company, Parkwood Entertainment.
These positions put Beyoncé in a unique position of power as a woman with influence and
decision-making power in an industry that has been hostile to women. Despite this, the
significance of these roles was not highlighted in the texts. This is particularly interesting as
ignoring these roles means also ignoring the full extent to which Beyoncé had influence over
how the music she produced in Lemonade would be distributed and received by the wider
public. The ignorance of this is further complicated by the way in which the influence of
Tidal in particular was addressed. Tidal was recognized as belonging to Beyoncé’s husband
Jay Z, which is indeed true, but he was usually the only name associated with the streaming
service. On the surface, the coverage of the album packages Beyoncé as a woman with
agency but, whether deliberately or not, masks the full extent of her true influence. Going a
step further by awarding part of her agency to her husband reinforces the idea that Black
women are need the help of Black men. or men in general, to be taken seriously within the
music industry (Dagbovie-Mullins, 2013).
The media discourse surrounding Lemonade, while most definitely imperfect, does point to a
healthier approach to discussing artist control and agency, particularly for Black women. The
first piece of this comes from the recognition Beyoncé gets for her skill at maintaining
influence in an industry often hostile towards women (Kennedy, 2016: Ali, 2016). What is
ignored within this recognition, once again, is Beyoncé’s identity as a Black woman. It is
already impressive that Beyoncé has achieved such power over her work, as women are
rarely awarded such agency, but it is also important to note the added importance of her
identity as a Black woman as this adds to the achievement. Therefore the cycle that is
repeated over and over by these mainstream news media texts is the acknowledgement of
Beyoncé’s success as a woman, but a universal failure to acknowledge her success as a Black
women. In texts which highlighted her focus on Black womanhood in the album, this seems
contradictory but yet that connection is not made universally despite the pre-existing focus on
Black women these texts have. This would have marked a further movement away from the
habit of infantilization popular culture has shown toward Black female artists (Dagbovie42
Mullins, 2013). This is a shortcoming in the representation of Black women in the American
media, despite the congratulatory way in which these texts discussed the album’s focus on
this demographic.
Mainstream media and advertising are inherently linked and the fact that these articles are all
from the mainstream point to a tacit acceptance of the merging of profit-seeking initiatives
with the feminist. As these texts are taken from the most prominent newspapers in the United
States, a main conclusion to be drawn from this is that such feminist undertakings, as long as
they are seen to be complex in nature, which is indeed the case concerning Lemonade, will be
warmly received by the mainstream media at large. The dual context of the album is therefore
rewarded and worthy of reward in the eyes of the mainstream news media.
Finally, it would be incorrect to say that Lemonade represents a huge leap forward for black
women in the United States. It is only one album, one cultural text among many. However, it
does represent a shift in representation for Black women within popular culture. It indicates
that the mainstream news media is in the process of evolving its discussions surrounding
Black women in particular. The incorporation of the media has historically been a negative
for Black women, as elite dominance helped to create negative views of Black women time
and again. However, the articles analyzed showed more positive signs for, not only
representation, but the discussion of the representation of Black women. They presented more
nuance regarding the lives and experiences of Black women while also making incremental
steps forward in recognizing the agency of one Black woman in particular, Beyoncé herself.
The responses to the album reflect a more comprehensive approach to inclusion in popular
culture. This therefore situates Lemonade in the optimistic postfeminist perspective, which
regards the main objective of the concept as aiming for inclusivity through critical selfanalysis of feminism and its ideals. This analysis therefore concludes that Lemonade is
symbolic of a positive and symbiotic relationship between feminism and popular culture.
While there is still much work to be done, these texts indicate that a foundation has been laid
for the future.
43
Appendices
Appendix A
Protocol for Analysis of News Articles
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Publication name
Headline of article
Date of publication
Section of newspaper
Length
a. Less than 500 words
b. Between 500-1000 words
c. More than 1000 words
6. Author, gender of author
7. Focus(es) within article
a. Focus on professional aspects
b. Focus on personal aspects
c. Blend of both personal and professional
8. Descriptive language used
a. Positive language
b. Negative language
9. Theme(s)
10. Point of view
a. Formal View (more use of formal language)
b. Informal View (more use of informal language)
11. Summary
Appendix B
Top Newspapers in the United States by Circulation (Cision AB, 2016)
Name
Main Readership Market
Circulation
USA Today
National
2,301,917
The New York Times
New York
2,101,611
The Wall Street Journal
New York
1,337,376
Los Angeles Times*
Los Angeles
467,309
New York Post
New York
424,721
Chicago Tribune*
Chicago
384, 962
The Washington Post
Washington, D.C.
356,296
44
Newsday
New York Metropolitan Area
321, 296
New York Daily News
New York
299,538
am New York
New York
298,759
*owned by the same company
Appendix C
Articles on Lemonade Published between 24 April and 24 July of 2016
Outlet
Headline
Date
Author
Section
URL
The New
York
Times
Heels on the
Ground:
Beyonce and
the Army of
Women at
Her
Command
09/06/16
Brian Seibert
Arts
https://www.nytimes.com/2016
/06/09/arts/dance/reviewbeyonce-dance-formation-citifield-new-york.html
The New
York
Times
Beyonce
Unearths
Pain and Lets
it Flow in
‘Lemonade’
(Print
Headline:
Rich With
Pain)
25/04/16
Wesley
Morris
Arts
https://www.nytimes.com/2016
/04/25/arts/music/beyonceunearths-pain-and-lets-it-flowin-lemonade.html
The New
York
Times
After HBO
Show,
Beyonce
Surprises
with New
Album
24/04/16
Joe
Coscarelli
Arts
https://www.nytimes.com/2016
/04/24/arts/music/beyoncehbo-lemonade.html
The New
York
Times
Refracted in
the Prism of
Lemonade
29/04/16
Jon
Caramonica
Arts
https://www.nytimes.com/2016
/04/29/arts/music/beyonceformation-world-tourlemonade.html
The New
York
Times
Making
Lemonades
Out of Strife
25/04/16
Jon Pareles
Arts
https://www.nytimes.com/2016
/04/25/arts/music/beyoncelemonade.html
The New
York
The Film
Ingredient in
28/04/16
Mekado
Murphy
Movies
https://www.nytimes.com/2016
/04/28/movies/daughters-of45
Times
(6)
Beyonce’s
‘Lemonade’
The Los
Angeles
Times
Beyonce Just
Released Her
New Album,
‘Lemonade’
During Her
HBO Special
23/04/16
Gerrick D.
Kennedy
Pop &
Hiss
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/music/posts/la-et-msbeyonce-lemonade-20160415story.html
The Los
Angeles
Times
Beyonce
shakes things
up again with
the release of
her album
‘Lemonade’
on Tidal
25/04/16
Gerrick
Kennedy
Music
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/music/la-et-msbeyonce-lemonade-album20160425-story.html
The Los
Angeles
Times
Fierce
Beyonce puts
Jay Z on final
notice, then
turns
bitterness
into
‘Lemonade’
26/06/16
Mikael
Wood
Pop &
Hiss
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/music/posts/la-et-msbeyonce-lemonade-review20160424-story.html
The Los
Angeles
Times
Angry while
female: Why
it matters that
Beyonce,
Kelly Ripa,
and
Samantha
Bee won’t
hide their
outrage
29/04/16
Mary
McNamara
Show
Tracker
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/tv/showtracker/la-et-stcritics-notebook-angrywomen-20160428-snaphtmlstory.html
The Los
Angeles
Times
With
‘Lemonade’,
Beyonce
shows she
doesn’t need
Hollywood
29/04/16
Marc
Bernadin
Movies
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/movies/la-et-mnbeyonce-lemonade-hollywood20160430-story.html
The Los
Angeles
Times
Bigger than a
breakup:
Beyonce and
Radiohead
11/05/16
Mikael
Wood
Music
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/music/la-et-msbeyonce-radiohead-breakupalbums-20160512-snap-
the-dust-restoration-beyoncelemonade.html
46
conflate the
personal and
the political
story.html
The Los
Angeles
Times
Beyonce has
long found
strength in
secrecy and
silence
13/05/16
Gerrick D.
Kennedy
Pop &
Hiss
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/music/posts/la-et-msbeyonce-silence-20160511snap-story.html
The Los
Angeles
Times
Beyonce’s
Superpower:
Keeping us
guessing as
she takes
charge of her
narrative
14/05/16
Lorraine Ali
Music
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/music/la-et-msbeyonce-art-of-confusionnarrative-control-20160511snap-story.html
The Los
Angeles
Times
Beyonce
leads fans
into
‘Formation’
at the Rose
Bowl
15/05/16
Lorraine Ali
Music
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/music/la-et-msbeyonce-rose-bowl-review20160513-snap-story.html
The Los
Angeles
Times
Beyonce’s
Lemonade up
for four
Emmys
14/07/16
Gerrick D.
Kennedy
Music
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/music/la-et-msbeyonce-lemonade-emmys20160714-snap-story.html
The Los
Angeles
Times
(11)
Popular
music and the
loss of anger
15/07/16
Lorraine Ali
Music
http://www.latimes.com/enterta
inment/music/la-et-msbeyonce-lemonade-emmys20160714-snap-story.html
24/04/16
Chris
Richards
Style
https://www.washingtonpost.co
m/lifestyle/style/beyonceslemonade-turns-lifes-lemonsinto-furiouspop/2016/04/24/cce58aec0a4d-11e6-8ab89ad050f76d7d_story.html
The
Beyonce’s
Washingt ‘Lemonade’
on Post
turns life’s
lemons into
into furious
pop
47
The
Washingt
on Post
(2)
The better we
understand
Beyoncé, the
more there is
to know
23/05/16
Chris
Richards
Style
https://www.washingtonpost.co
m/lifestyle/style/the-better-weunderstand-beyonce-the-morethere-isknow/2016/06/23/30ada49036d8-11e6-8f7cd4c723a2becb_story.html?utm
_term=.1a686c70bc5a
Chicago
Tribune
(1)
Beyonce’s
‘Lemonade’
contains
singer’s most
fully realized
music yet
24/04/16
Greg Kot
http://www.chicagotribune.co
m/entertainment/music/kot/ctbeyonce-lemonade-albumreview-20160424-column.html
New
York
Post
Beyonce
burns Jay Z
in new video
and album
24/04/16
Hardeep
Phull
http://nypost.com/2016/04/24/b
eyonce-burns-jay-z-in-newvideo-and-album/
New
York
Post
Beyonce’s
new album
spills the
beans on her
marriage and
more
24/04/16
Hardeep
Phull
http://nypost.com/2016/04/24/b
eyonces-new-album-spills-thebeans-on-her-marriage-andmore/
New
York
Post (3)
Thank you,
Beyonce, for
not holding
back
25/04/16
Mackenzie
Dawson
http://nypost.com/2016/04/25/t
hank-you-beyonce-for-notholding-back/
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