BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
“There is no such thing as bad publicity.”
– A Public Relations analysis behind
the success of Grand Theft Auto.
Josephine Yang Nielsen
May 2010
1
BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
ABSTRACT
This paper attempts to answer the thesis statement surrounding the validity of the claim that
controversy can be a factor in a company’s success. The important thing to note here is that the paper
is purely theoretical, and from an external observer viewpoint. As a point of reference, the case of the
Grand Theft Auto games by Rockstar Games will be used to help in identifying the pertinent arguments.
Following an introduction to the concept and its relation to the field of PR, there will be a brief
description on the paper’s methodology, and the relevant PR and branding theories that will aid in
leading an analysis.
Before the theoretical discussion ensues, a product/brand profile will provide the necessary
background details to clarify the case. The profile will include information about the company/product
history, the controversy of GTA, the company reaction towards media outrage, and the possible PR
tactics employed. The profile will be crucial in understanding the application of the relevant theories
that are needed in order to answer the central question.
The theoretical framework will cover the topics of press agentry, the public, media relations, and the
appropriate topics from the integrated marketing communications discipline. These theories will be
applied from a PR perspective and be used in accordance to the pertinent features of the GTA case.
These features will include the brand personality of Rockstar Games and their product, GTA, as well as
the relationships between Rockstar Games’ marketing/PR team, the media, and the general public.
Finally, a conclusion will be made based on the deduction of evidence and applied theory. The major
arguments will be reiterated to round off the paper and provide a clear position to the reader.
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BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
1.1 Thesis Statement
1.2 Theoretical Structure
1.3 Methodology
1.4 Delimitations
2. Grand Theft Auto Profile
2.1 Overview
2.2 Background
2.2.1 The Controversy
2.2.2 Rockstar’s Reaction
2.2.3 PR Strategy
2.2.4 GTA Success
3. Theoretical Framework
3.1 Press Agentry & The Public
3.2 Media Relations
3.2.1 Critical Theory & Liberal Pluralism
3.2.2 Principles & Techniques
3.2.3 Public Relations Democracy
3.3 Integrated Marketing Communications
3.3.1 The AIDA Model
3.3.2 Brand Identity & Personality
3.3.3 The PR Perspective
4. Analysis
5. Conclusion
6. Literature
7. Appendices
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Word Count: 54.050 characters (excluding spaces)
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BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
INTRODUCTION
The saying goes that ‘There is no such thing as bad publicity, *except your own obituary+’, originally
quoted by Irish poet, Brendan Behan. From a public relations perspective, the concept is an interesting
one. It suggests that despite an entity or product being depicted by the media as immoral, incorrect,
offensive, or corrupting the youth of today, the end result is still increased attention, recognition, and
inevitably consumption1. ‘Moral guardians’ draw even more attention to their respective objects of
hate, resulting in such quantities of free publicity that would otherwise have been expensive to
support. As Oscar Wilde famously supposed, ‘the only thing worse than being talked about is not being
talked about’, aptly suggesting that anything is better than being existentially absent.
The phenomenon is sometimes referred to as ‘succès de scandale’2, which literally means ‘success from
scandal’. It may seem paradoxical to suggest that success can be derived from scandal however, as was
alluded to earlier, scandal attracts interest and in some cases this attention leads to notoriety and
success. The phenomenon has gained prevalence in our contemporary culture, and is indicative of the
extent to which modern PR management has evolved. With the rapid spread of the Internet,
information is exchanged faster than ever and PR management has adapted to keep up in increasingly
innovative ways.
One example of a product that became one of the best-selling game franchises in the industry despite
negative press and controversial content is the Grand Theft Auto game franchise, produced by Rockstar
Games. The GTA franchise caters to the developing ‘gamer’ society present amongst consumers of all
ages. Officially, GTA is targeted to gamers above the age of 18 due to rating regulations required by
governments. Unofficially GTA has an even broader target group, and reaches to comprise of young
teens and adolescents as well. The games contain violence, sexual explicitness, alcohol, drugs, foul
language, and general disregard for the law and moral standards. Some assert it to be a “glorification of
criminal activity”3and that it stimulates ‘copycat’ behaviour. It has therefore been the subject of
multiple lawsuits and aversions by the media, public figures, and interest groups. Yet despite all the
antagonism, up until the release of GTA IV in 2008 the franchise has sold a staggering total of 70m
copies.
1
’No Such Thing As Bad Publicity’ – TVTropes.org
‘Succès de scandale’ – Wikipedia.org
3
’The Big Question: What is Grand Theft Auto, and why does it cause such controversy?’ – Rebecca Armstrong
(The Independent)
2
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BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
It will be exciting to explore further into PR management practices and gain an understanding into the
theoretical aspects behind the phenomenon, while using the GTA game franchise as a case study. A
better understanding of the phenomenon will provide an angle of insight to the complex nature of
modern PR, and inevitably into the various tools available to give any brand, such as GTA, an edge. The
ability of GTA to set itself apart from the rest revolutionised the modern video game industry, and it
will be interesting to see to what extent their public relations activities prevented a flop.
1.1
Thesis Statement
The thesis aims to gain an understanding of the possible link between public relations tactics, and the
launches and subsequent successes of the GTA games. The games are, in short, officially rated as of
violent and morally questionable natures that are now available for not only PlayStation consoles, but
also Xbox and PC. The franchise has been a success despite efforts by certain publics and medias to
suppress it. Therefore, based on a theoretical discussion of relevant communications concepts and
theories, did the publicity generated by the Grand Theft Auto controversy potentially contribute to the
game franchise’s success?
Gaining a clearer understanding of the link between the role of PR and the success of GTA would
contribute further to our knowledge of aspects to be considered when planning a PR strategy in order
to promote a brand that would set itself apart in our increasingly competitive modern environment.
1.2
Theoretical Structure
In order to best answer the question, theoretical knowledge will be applied to the GTA case with focus
on public relations and IMC/branding concepts and theories. To begin with, various concepts of PR will
be used to define and support the methods pertaining to GTA’s strategy, including media relations from
Tench & Yeoman’s Exploring Public Relations (2006). The book provides a good overview to the general
concepts and theories used, and is therefore a crucial contribution to the thesis.
Further insight will be drawn from Pickton & Broderick’s Integrated Marketing Communications (2005)
to offer an IMC perspective to the PR discipline. These concepts will be supported by a brief exploration
into branding, and the link to how the relevant PR/marketing methods can influence consumers.
Finally, data will be gathered from various databases, e-journals, and news articles available to support
and expand on the knowledge provided by these books. The concepts and theories from the books will
serve as a foundation to these supplementary sources found within the context of the analysis, and
deepen theoretical discussion.
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BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
1.3
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
Methodology
The thesis begins with an examination of the GTA phenomenon – its development as a game franchise,
and the controversies it generated, as well as continuing on to identify the various apparent tactics
employed by Rockstar Games in reaction to the controversies and lawsuits. The final chapter to the
GTA profile will briefly discuss the success of the game franchise. To achieve this, numerous news
articles and editorials found from sources on the Internet are used to provide such information. These
would include online newspapers, and various online magazines, blogs, and forums.
The profile for GTA is necessary to establish the context of the thesis.
The profile for GTA is necessary to establish the context of the thesis, and once a foundation has been
established, a theoretical framework will be constructed to provide the tools necessary to investigate
the issue. This theoretical framework will include concepts and theories from PR, IMC, and branding
pertaining to the areas under discussion.
Finally, an analysis of the concepts and theories applied to the case study will instigate a discussion of
the relationship between PR and the case, and whether or not the claim that success can be derived
from scandal is valid enough for further consideration and investigation.
In relation to how this paper intends to operate will be along the lines of the faculty of deduction; a
concept from theory of scientific methods. The reasoning is that to answer the thesis statement below,
this paper attempts to analyse and argue points based on evidence found; the evidence being
communication materials that are available to the general public. From the analysis a conclusion will be
drawn, answering the thesis statement, by way of deductive reasoning.
1.4
Delimitations
As it is not possible to obtain documents describing the actual PR strategy that was implemented by
Rockstar Games, it is important to keep in mind that this thesis will only focus on information available
to the public. This would include interviews, official websites, fan sites, game magazines, press releases,
PR swags, editorials, and information presented in news articles. Note that as data is obtained from
external sources, it is a study of the relationship between the game franchise and the public/media.
Take into account as well that despite its ability of posing as a gateway to related topics and more indepth analyses, this thesis will attempt to restrict analysis and discussion within the constraints of the
surface subject; the relationship between GTA and the public.
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BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
Another delimitation that presented itself during the writing of this paper was the limited availability of
sources. The discussion of some theories was based on sources that were not the original source, but
from sources that were written later making reference to the original sources. The original sources
were, at the time, unavailable.
2
GRAND THEFT AUTO PROFILE
2.1
Overview4
The Grand Theft Auto series began in 1997, and has nine individual games with two expansions each to
the original version, GTA, and the latest version, GTA IV. The name is in reference to the American legal
term for ‘motor vehicle theft’. As the series gained popularity, well-known film actors such as Michael
Madsen and Dennis Hopper have contributed their voices to the major characters of various game
installments.
The games involve players taking on the role of a criminal in a big city, and through missions they will
rise through the ranks of organized crime. These missions include assassination, taxi driving, pimping,
street racing, and flying helicopters. The series belongs to a genre of games called ‘sandbox’ games,
which means that players have more freedom to decide what to do and how to do it. In this way, the
games have assumed a more complex structure with a lateral approach to gameplay.
The original GTA game, set in Liberty City, San Andreas, and Vice City, was released for Windows and
PlayStation in 1997 and 1998 respectively. The second game, GTA 2, developed for Windows and
Dreamcast was released in 1999. It was GTA III released in October 2001, however, that served as the
breakthrough product; the advanced graphics and improved gameplay helped contribute to sales
amounting to five times that of the previous two releases combined. GTA IV was released on 29 April
2008; six months after the promised release date. The year 2009 saw multiple spin off releases from
Rockstar games: The Lost and the Damned, The Ballad of Gay Tony, Episodes From Liberty City, and
Chinatown Wars. Their latest project, GTA: Liberty City Mafia, began production in 2010, and is
rumoured to be released later the same year.
4
Grand Theft Auto (series) – Wikipedia.org
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Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
2.2
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
Background5
Rockstar Games, the company behind Grand Theft Auto, was founded by Dan and Sam Houser, and
their childhood classmate Terry Donovan. All three were born into media families, and idolized rappers
and DJs from the New York music scene, so from an early age they dreamed of rock stardom.
To achieve their dreams of breaking into the music industry, all three took jobs at BMG Music in
London. In 1993, an interactive division was launched, and BMG Interactive got its big break from a
developer in Scotland for a game called Race and Chase, which was later renamed Grand Theft Auto. In
1998, the division was bought by Take Two Interactive – a young publisher in New York founded in
1993 by 21 year old Ryan Brant.
When they launched GTA 2 in 1999, only around 2 million copies were sold. So for GTA III, Sam
‘micromanaged’ production, encouraging developers to attempt what no other games developer had
ever attempted before. It was to be the first 3D game from the company, and after its release in
October 2001 it sold five times as well as its two predecessors. It was also to be the most violent of the
series so far, but Sam Houser (in answer to concerns about the violence) explained that there was a
moral system ‘hard-coded’ into it. The more violent and immoral the player’s decisions became, the
more “wanted” the player’s character became. In anticipation of the success of GTA III, Take Two’s
stock went from $7 to $20 in the space of 3 months.
While NASDAQ halted the company’s stock trades for three weeks following the jump in share price,
the Securities and Exchange Commission launched an investigation into Take Two’s accounting
department. Allegedly, the company was involved in a few “parking transactions” in 2000 and 2001,
and Brant was later charged for backdating option grants, while awarding several executives shares,
between 1997 and 2003. In June 2005, Take Two settled and paid $7.5 million in penalties.
Meanwhile, to depict their dedication to quality, the Houser brothers were determined to maintain the
style, mood, and setting of their next game, Vice City (2003). They sent their developers to Miami to
soak up as much information as they could to use towards creating the game. The release of San
Andreas in 2004 saw 5 million copies sold within two months. Eight months later, Rockstar became
embroiled in a scandal involving a sex mini-game that became known as ‘Hot Coffee’ (refer to 2.2.1) –
resulting in numerous lawsuits.
5
’The Road to Ruin: How Grand Theft Auto Hit the Skids’ – David Kushner (Wired Magazine)
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BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
In October 2006, Ryan Brant resigned and later agreed to pay an additional $7.3 million after pleading
guilty to falsifying business records. He also accepted a lifelong ban from serving in any management
position in any public company. In light of all these headaches, the irony is apparent. Rockstar Games
was the company to define virtual criminality, and somehow they got embroiled in the real thing. Along
the way, Rockstar’s founders built up the stardom they had dreamed of – while earning their company
over a billion dollars in revenue. ‘Rockstar wouldn’t just sell games – it would sell a lifestyle’6.
2.2.1
The Controversy
The games have sparked so much controversy that in 2008 and 2009, The Guinness World Records
Gamer’s Edition declared GTA the most controversial game series in history7. It has generated over
4000 articles8, and has been blamed for the glamorization of violence, corruption of youth, and serving
as inspiration to real life crimes. Journalist Katherine Kersten of the Star Tribune wrote, ‘Games like
GTA IV stimulate and glamorize our dark impulses. They create a taste for the psychological thrill that
can come from dominating and degrading others. They encourage us to strip our fellow human beings
of their dignity, and view them merely as objects of violence or sexual desire’9.
Jack Thompson10 was one of the most outspoken opponents of sexually explicit and violent video
games. He worked alongside other public figures (eg. Hillary Clinton) and parent groups (eg. MADD) for
the cause. He sent hundreds of letters, made dozens of media appearances, and filed several law suits
against Take Two. The lawsuits were filed after real life crimes were committed, and the families of the
victims blamed the incidents on the influence the games had on the perpetrators or victims. He also
filed against the ‘Hot Coffee’ controversy, which will be discussed at the end of this chapter.
The games have instigated accusations of promoting violence, illegal activities, discrimination against
Haiti, drunk driving, full frontal nudity, and an exploitative and violent attitude towards women11. For
example, the main character could pick up a prostitute to boost their health, and then kill her to get his
money back. After GTA III was released, the US representative Joe Baca introduced the Protect Children
from Video Game Sex and Violence Act of 2002. The bill was never passed, and the lawsuit seeking
$246 million in damages filed in 2003 claiming that the game encouraged two teens from Tennessee to
6
’The Road to Ruin: How Grand Theft Auto Hit the Skids’ – David Kushner (Wired Magazine)
’Grand Theft Auto (series)’ – Wikipedia.org
8
ibid
9
’Grand Theft Auto’s heist of the American character’ – Katherine Kersten (Star Tribune)
10
’Welcome to JackThompson.org – an open source project’ – JackThompson.org
11
’Grand Theft Auto (series)’ – Wikipedia.org
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BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
shoot passerby, killing one and wounding another, failed. However, the controversy generated boosted
sales of GTA III12.
The controversy escalated when a Dutch fan, Patrick Wildenborg, blogged that he had unlocked a
hidden code in the San Andreas game in which he could actually watch and have sex with his in-game
girlfriend, and then he released the mod on the internet13. The discovery resulted in a class action
lawsuit and led the ESRB to elevate its rating for the game from M (mature) to an AO (adults only)
rating, meaning that sales would plummet as most retailers are not willing to supply AO rated games.
The scandal became known as ‘Hot Coffee’ in reference to the game’s term for sex which, until the mod
was discovered, occurred only behind closed doors. According to Wildenborg, the game’s script code
contained the scene, but it had been hidden so that it couldn’t be normally accessed on the final
release. Many speculate towards the reason why the code had been there in the first place. Some say
that it had been added as a gag and had just been forgotten to be removed. Others say that it had been
added as an act of sabotage, while many maintain that it had been a deliberate ‘mistake’ in line with
Rockstar’s increasingly daring efforts to push the limits and spark controversy. Take Two was forced to
modify their game and re-release it in order to keep their M rating.
2.2.2
Rockstar’s Reaction
In response to the controversy that the games generated, Rockstar seemed to prefer to keep a low
profile. Instead of creating games that were more child-friendly, they maintained their game content in
line with what they had become notorious for and merely strived to keep their M rating. To steer some
focus away from accusations of encouraging the mistreatment of women, they created the new
dimension of dating in their San Andreas game. And while they maintained their low profile, they put
out press releases about issues such as the SEC investigation to inform the public before things turned
nasty. In reply to the civil lawsuits filed against them, they maintained that their games could not be
responsible for the actions of their consumers. In one article14, they argued that the parents are
responsible for their children’s activities and are the gatekeepers for their sources of entertainment.
They also stated that in opposition of age concerns, statistics show that the average gamer is between
the ages of 29 and 32. Gathered from further interviews with co-founder Sam Houser15, there is a built
in morality system in the games, and that popular opinion amongst gamers is that the GTA games
provide an outlet for criminal and violent behaviour, and not inspiration. He maintains that GTA players
12
’The Road to Ruin: How Grand Theft Auto Hit the Skids’ – David Kushner (Wired Magazine)
’Sex controversy over GTA game’ – BBC News
14
‘Grand Theft Auto’s heist of the American character’ – Katherine Kersten (Star Tribune)
15
‘The Road to Ruin: How Grand Theft Auto Hit the Skids’ – David Kushner (Wired Magazine)
13
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BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
can decide which missions they want to complete, and develop their relationships with other
characters based on their choices.
When the ‘Hot Coffee’ scandal broke they hired crisis expert, Rodney Walker, to do spin control –
unfortunately for Rockstar, the press release that they put out did not correspond with the mounting
evidence that the coding was hidden in the original game, and not constructed by determined
hackers16. He maintained that while the coding may have been hidden in the game, it could only have
been enabled by modders and thereby post the mod-patch on the Internet for the general public to use
– stating that hackers are the problem, and not the game. After receiving the new AO rating, Rockstar
recalled their stock from retailer shelves, began working on a version of the game without the scene,
and re-released the game with the M rating at a total cost of $25 million. According to Corey Wade, a
former senior product manager at Rockstar, “Blaming it on hackers was a colossal PR screwup”. Since
the incident, Rockstar has been unwilling to comment. Rockstar’s reaction was generally very unnatural
for a company that embodied everything that the conservative media was against, and even Doug
Lowenstein of the ESA (Entertainment Software Association) stated, “If you want to be controversial,
that’s great. But then don’t duck and cover when the shit hits the fan. Stand up and defend what you
make” 17.
2.2.3
PR Strategy
It is not possible to define what Rockstar’s planned PR strategy was without being privy to confidential
information from the PR team. However, as an external observer it is possible to draw on various
methods that may have been employed. GTA has built up a truly global and loyal fan base, prompting
the eruption of GTA related media online and on paper print. For example, the fan website for GTA IV,
gta4.net, keeps fans up to date with launches, rumours, and press releases while providing a medium
for fans to discuss their shared passion. In one post (May 2, 2008), there was a discussion about the
MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving) protest against GTA. Other examples are rockstargames.com
and rockstarwatch.net, illustrating just a few of the many websites dedicated to Rockstar Games and
GTA. Not only has Rockstar built up their fan base that by themselves promote the brand, they have
kept the media saturated with press releases and launches, ensuring that the public knows as much as
16
17
’GTA sex scandal changing how industry looks at modders’ – Stephen Totilo (MTV)
’The Road to Ruin: How Grand Theft Auto Hit the Skids’ – David Kushner (Wired Magazine)
11
BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
they are warranted to know about the company. Dan and Sam Houser have both given interviews such
as the one Dan Houser gave to USA Today18 in anticipation of the release of their Gay Tony game.
It is important for Rockstar to feed journalists from magazines (especially those specializing in games),
newspapers, and bloggers information about their games, in a way controlling what is being released to
the public. In this way, they are also able to reply to accusations of promoting mindless violence,
profanity, and lawlessness – maintaining that the games are for sheer entertainment value with in-built
moral systems, and what players choose to do in the games is purely individual. This method of
information feeding is something that is very much discussed in an article published by online
magazine, Gamasutra19. The article claims that game publishers such as Rockstar Games control ‘what
you get, when you get it, and who you get it from’. ‘The folks with their hands on the valve – the ones
who tell games journalists about upcoming games (or don’t), set up interviews with the game’s
developers (or don’t), and eventually send out early review copies of that game (or don’t) – are the
publicists, or in the insider lingo, PR reps’ essentially sums up what the article assumes about the role of
PR in the game media industry. For Rockstar Games, journalists for magazines can write about GTA, and
save them a lot of money in advertising fees; that is of course assuming the story is favourable.
According to former publicist Todd Zuniga, Rockstar Games focused a lot of attention towards
journalists and ‘emphasized person-to-person contact between publicist and editors, which included
transcontinental flights to hand-deliver new games for review’. He also claimed that if the house of GTA
got one bad review, they would retaliate – succinctly embodying the hardcore nature of the games they
produce.
Further illustrating their brazen image, to promote GTA 2 in 1999 Rockstar Games threw a series of
parties20 with a GTA theme – for example, to gain entry the partygoer must call a number, leave their
contact info, and they would be contacted again with questions such as “What has been the best
moment in your life so far?”. Rockstar Games made sure that their image was raw and outlaw
burnished – instead of advertising GTA through standard the channels they plastered their logo all over
the city as if they were a band, and sent a barbed-wire garrote to the reviewers of another game they
released, Manhunt.
Combined with the questionability of the ‘Hot Coffee’ incident amongst others, it leads us to ponder
the idea that perhaps controversy was the ultimate PR strategy. As Brian Baglow, a leading video games
18
’The rest of the story: ’GTA: The Ballad of Gay Tony’’ – Mike Snider (USA Today)
’PR and the Game Media: How PR shapes what you think about games’ – Robert Ashley and Shawn Elliott
(Gamasutra)
20
’The Road to Ruin: How Grand Theft Auto Hit the Skids’ – David Kushner (Wired Magazine)
19
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Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
expert, said: “Rockstar is a one-company cultural revolution, a true global force. From the very
beginning they have been pushing back the boundaries of acceptability and science as far as they can
stretch them and with every move, they’ve carved a massive reputation of doing the things that other
companies don’t have the guts to do”21.
2.2.4
GTA Success22
The GTA series started out with sales figures of approximately 1m copies sold. The second era saw total
sales of about 2m copies. As mentioned previously, it was the third era of games that served as
Rockstar’s breakthrough product with total era sales amounting to around 93.1m copies. The games
from the third era all achieved platinum labels and the success continued with the fourth generation of
games – totalling GTA series sales of over 120m copies. GTA IV sold around 15m copies alone, and beat
previous sales records in the industry by selling around 6m copies within the first week23.
3
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Public relations practices come in many forms depending on what the intended effect(s) is/are. As a
guideline ‘PR can be defined differently as a ‘concept’ (‘communications management by an
organization with its publics’), as a practice (‘mostly dealing with the media’) and in terms of its effects
on society (‘a category of persuasive communications done through the mass media or through private
lobbying by groups to advance their material or ideological interests’) (Moloney (2000: 6))24. For the
purposes of the GTA case, this paper will focus primarily on the areas within PR concerning media
relations and marketing management. That is to say, that since GTA is well known for being both
controversial and successful, it is critical to understand the influence Rockstar Games has on the media,
and the influence the media has on Rockstar’s end consumers.
3.1
Press Agentry & The Public
According to Grunig’s ‘excellent’ approach to public relations, its role is to ‘use communication to build
relations with the strategic public that shape and constrain the mission of the organisation’25. Together
with systems theorist, Todd Hunt, he presented four models of PR in 1984 based on observations they
made of PR practices in the US: press agentry/publicity, public information, two-way asymmetric, and
21
’Making A Killing’ – Iain S. Bruce (Herald Scotland)
’Grand Theft Auto (series)’ – Wikipedia.org
23
’’Grand Theft IV’ smashes sales records’ – Chris Nuttal (Financial Times)
24
’Exploring Public Relations’ – Tench & Yeoman (p. 5)
25
‘Models of Public Relations in an International Setting’ – Grunig; Grunig; Sriramesh; Huang; and Lyra (p. 164)
22
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Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
two-way symmetric26. They represent the values, goals, and behaviours of practicing organizations, and
further conceptualization by Grunig and Grunig in 1992 placed these models on two continua: the craft
PR continuum (propaganda vs. journalism) and the professional continuum (persuasion vs.
collaboration)27. Press agentry was placed on the ‘propaganda’ end of the craft PR continuum in
accordance with its defining features. The craft PR continuum represents the one way models of
practice that generally see practitioners give information to publics, but do not seek information from
publics. Grunig further suggests that practitioners of press agentry intend to persuade or manipulate
their respective publics. The aim is to distribute the propagandistic point of view (which may or may
not be truthful) of the sender through the media and other channels, while seeking media attention by
any means possible28. The model tends to not be based on research or strategic planning, usually
creates conflict with the media, and focuses on information favourable to the organisation29. Further
research by Grunig and Grunig also showed that organizations tend to incorporate several models in
practice, although press agentry seems to be the most popular. This supports the idea that press
agentry is the most pertinent model in this particular case.
Grunig goes on to discuss the differences in active and passive publics, and how they are significant to
public relations practitioners. The three independent variables of his situational theory of publics
intend to distinguish between the two types: problem recognition, level of involvement, and constraint
recognition30. Active publics recognize a problem, feel they are personally involved, and are
unconstrained to do something about it. Passive publics, on the other hand, are less involved but this
does not go to say they are apathetic. While they do not actively seek information or feel the need to
involve themselves in the issue, they are still able to absorb information and be somehow influenced.
This is important in the realm of press agentry since it involves the sending of messages to passive
receivers that are easily persuaded or manipulated31. It is also important to recognize the distinctions
when discussing the media flare-up over the GTA controversy.
3.2
Media Relations
Media relations are important for PR practitioners to the extent that media endorsement has immense
influence in the world of business. There is therefore a crucial difference between advertising and
26
ibid (p. 169)
ibid (p. 170)
28
ibid (p. 169)
29
‘Theory and Practice of Interactive Media Relations’ – James E. Grunig (p. 21)
30
ibid (p. 19)
31
‘Public Relations: Critical Debates and Contemporary Practice’ – L’Etang & Pieczka (p. 10)
27
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BAMMC
public relations; the former involving payment for media attention, while the latter is essentially free,
and hopefully favourable, media attention32. The defining concept that advertising therefore lacks is
credibility, since media endorsements are theoretically impartial. Consumers are more readily
convinced by the media, rather than by advertising where organisations can easily pay a sum of money
and be guaranteed ad space to say or show whatever they please. One study has shown that 52% of TV
viewers switch channels at commercial breaks33. The problem lies in the fact that, ultimately, media
endorsements are not guaranteed, and the power of PR is uncontrollable. Maintaining good media
relations is therefore important for PR practitioners, and involves good communication and
cooperation between both parties. Its relevance to the case is evident in the analysis of the
transference of information from the Rockstar Games PR team to the media. As a general outline, the
media relations topics that will be included here are the following: media theory, principles and
techniques, and PR democracy.
3.2.1
Critical Theory & Liberal Pluralism
The four main theoretical perspectives of media theory are namely political economy, critical
theory/neo-Marxism, feminism, and liberal pluralism. The two perspectives in focus here will be critical
theory and liberal pluralism.
Critical theorists have an interestingly insightful approach to normative PR models. Stemming from
Marxist views, they argue that the practice of PR is biased by nature and can only benefit the entities
behind planned communications34. With the rise of the mass media, it is becoming increasingly more
facile for practitioners to communicate their ideas to their audiences, and by ever more diverse means.
It has brought some critical theorists to question the legitimacy of the information available since the
public could only be receiving objective information from PR practitioners, and can therefore only be
acting in accordance to that information35. Can PR ultimately have the ability to manipulate public
opinion, and spread propagandistic public discourse? Since PR professionals in certain fields such as the
entertainment industry can control what journalists are told and thus the public about their clients, it is
interesting to consider whether or not the current media environment may be partially servicing and
partially managing public opinion. It questions the extent to which ‘media professionals knowingly (or
32
’Exploring Public Relations’ – Tench & Yeoman (p. 312-313)
’More bang for your PR buck’ – Julien Speed (Admap Magazine)
34
ibid (p. 168)
35
’Critical Perspectives in Public Relations’ – L’Etang & Pieczka (p. 47)
33
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BAMMC
otherwise) engage in the production of dominant ideology in support of the ruling class or other
dominant social groups’36.
Liberal pluralists, however, argue that media professionals decide for themselves what information to
distribute, and do not conform to the demands of dominant social groups37. They recognize that media
professionals have a degree of creative freedom and agency. As another point, with the proliferation of
the mass and social medias, discussion and persuasion of different public opinions is even more
accessible to the greater public.
With this in mind, it is important for PR practitioners to maintain good relationships with their media
distributors from the liberal pluralist perspective. To some extent, it is possible to say that the two
perspectives can overlap. Despite the fact that PR practitioners can be the ones controlling the flow of
information to journalists (from the critical perspective), it is up to the journalists whether or not they
wish to distribute, alter, embellish, or degrade that information (from the liberal pluralist perspective).
3.2.2
Principles & Techniques
To further illustrate the importance of media relations in the PR field, Grunig38 presents the notion that
PR practitioners intentionally manipulate the media agenda, and hence create unnecessary conflict. He
maintains that one-way communication methods are ways to release information that is only beneficial
to their clients, and in so doing manipulating what journalists write instead of allowing journalists to
write what they perceive to be of value. The irony in it is, however, that practitioners who acknowledge
the importance of good two-way communication with their media counterparts strategically develop
better relations with the media and key publics, and communicate about problems before they become
hot issues for the media.
Grunig and Hunt (1984) developed two models of media relations: the publicity model and the
relationships model39. According to these models, organisations tend to lean to one or the other with
respect to their relationships with the media. For the purpose of this paper, the publicity model
presents characteristics pertinent to the case. The publicity model is short term and one way in nature,
with little focus on the relationship or research of the public. It is a popular model in the industries of
sports, entertainment, and product promotion – there is no need for feedback, just a need to get the
right information to the receivers. It would seem, therefore, that journalists are constantly bombarded
36
’Understanding the Media’ – Devereux (p. 124)
Ibid (p. 126)
38
’Theory and Practice of Interactive Media Relations’ – James E. Grunig (p. 23)
39
’Exploring Public Relations’ – Tench & Yeoman (p. 316)
37
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Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
with information from numerous sources. Together with the proliferation of media outlets, the industry
has seen an abundance of sources who attempt to use these outlets40, and at the end of the day, it is
the media who decide what is published and what isn’t. PR practitioners become seemingly
insignificant in the publishing process, and must compete with other agents to deliver a story that is
news-worthy. If relations are bad, a journalist may be suspicious of the information’s credibility or
interest factor, or may just decide they do not wish to gratify the PR source.
On the other hand, the development of the Internet allowing information to travel faster than before
has led to increased competition between media professionals, and diminishing time frames to
produce stories. ‘(…) increased competition, rising stress levels, and a decline in thorough, let alone
investigative, journalism is indeed common among journalists (...)’41. Our modern fast-paced society has
led journalists to progressively rely on PR sources for stories. The publicity model easily allows for
practitioners to take advantage of the situation and feed information to the media.
Modern practice has called for PR agents to maintain a media list with contacts that they have already
established working relationships with, and when a story needs to be published, the appropriate
contacts are chosen42. More importantly, since journalists likely receive countless emails and calls from
other sources, a professional must ensure that they do not waste the journalist’s time or become a
nuisance. Ultimately, the PR practitioner must know how to woo their media target.
3.2.3
Public Relations Democracy
The discussion has led to therefore question the influence PR has on the media agenda, and to what
extent. Through the use of the publicity model, it has become difficult to determine what is PR
instigated and what is journalism43. Not only is information constantly being fed from numerous PR
sources (some hidden via third-party presentation), but PR sources tend to only present favourable
information and keep out the negative stories. ‘Perhaps the most significant obstacle to defining where
public relations ends and journalism begins is the fact that the two have become inextricably linked in a
relationship that is largely invisible. Media and PR practices are most successful and appear most
legitimate when the process of interaction between the two remains undeclared’44.
40
‘Public Relations Democracy: Public Relations, Politics and the Mass Media in Britain’ – Aeron Davis (p. 31)
ibid (p. 36)
42
’Exploring Public Relations’ – Tench & Yeoman (p. 328)
43
’Public Relations Democracy: Public Relations, Politics and the Mass Media in Britain’ – Aeron Davis (p. 25)
44
ibid (p. 27)
41
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3.3
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
Integrated Marketing Communications
Integrated marketing communications can be defined as a concept that involves the integration and
coordination of the numerous communications methods to deliver the necessary message from
organisation/product(s) to consumers45. A brief understanding of certain aspects of the process will
help in structuring the discussion about the PR/marketing relationship between the case and their
publics. The topics that will be covered are the AIDA model, brand identity/personality, and finally the
PR perspective of the IMC mix.
3.3.1
The AIDA Model
The AIDA model, introduced by Elmo Lewis in the 19th century, describes a simple hierarchy of effects in
the buying process46. It proposes that buyers move from a state of awareness, to interest, to desire,
and finally to action in the process of consumption. When observing the IMC promotional mix, the AIDA
model illustrates on a basic level the roles played by various communication methods; PR/publicity and
advertising found primarily in the stages between awareness and interest47, enhancing brand
development.
There has, however, been much discussion over the validity of the AIDA model in describing modern
communications as the process of brand communication is much more complex than is claimed by the
model. As one researcher, Chris Barnham, pointed out – ‘The brand is now construed as also sending
emotional, and therefore more complex, messages to the consumer, and we have recognised, as a
result, that the business of brand experience is more subtle than the rationality of AIDA once suggested.
The fundamental structures of the AIDA model remain, however, firmly in place, albeit with new
terminology’48. Furthermore, the AIDA model assumes a Cartesian model of perception indicating that
consumers perceive an object or an event through their retina, and rationalise that which they have
perceived – thoroughly exemplifying the process as merely a transmission form from sender to
receiver49. Discussion led by Robert Heath on Damasio’s (1994) Descartes’ Error, asserts that as beings
that evolved from primitive organic life, we still utilise to great extent our primal instincts, and that we
are therefore ‘physically incapable of making decisions based on pure logic’50. The problem lies,
45
’Integrated Marketing Communications’ – Pickton & Broderick (p. 3)
ibid (p. 86)
47
ibid (p. 598)
48
’Instantiation: Reframing brand communication’ – Chris Barnham (p. 203)
49
ibid (p. 204)
50
‘Low involvement processing – a new model of brand communication’ – Robert Heath (p. 29)
46
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Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
therefore, in that the model suggests consumers interpret and act only upon the rational messages
they receive.
Barnham’s rejection of the concept recognises that emotional values as well as rational ones are
equally, if not more, important in the buying process. He further mentions that Heath (2001) has shown
consumers process meaning at more profound levels than was previously assumed, and ‘the very
process of brand experience works implicitly and in a manner that is both passive and non-conscious’51.
Therefore, preserving the remit of the AIDA model as the fundamental platform, it is clear that
consumers are becoming more familiar with the marketing process and are able to interpret messages
beyond their face value. Building on the model, the brand owner is no longer the ‘sender’ but the
‘author, and the brand itself becomes the ‘message’ – consumers experience the brand instead of
interpreting the message being sent about the brand (Appendix a)52. In this way, the AIDA model helps
illustrate the rational and emotional values of the buying process, and how ultimately, it’s about selling
the brand.
3.3.2
Brand Identity & Personality
David Aaker introduced the Brand Identity Planning Model (Appendix b) to aid organisations in
developing a brand that would define itself from other competing brands. His dimensions within the
brand identity system suggested that a brand should be considered as a product, an organisation, a
symbol, and a person53.
As a product54, it is important that the brand is associated with a product class so that brand recall is
achieved when a product class is mentioned. Another factor to take into account are the productrelated attributes which offer functional and, at times, emotional benefits to the consumer. As an
organisation55, the focus is oriented about the attributes of the organisation; such as innovation, CSR,
quality, culture, and values to name a few. It is especially crucial in that organisational attributes have
the ability of being difficult to duplicate by competitors, and contribute to a value proposition as well as
providing the credibility for a product. The brand as a symbol 56can provide cohesion and structure to
an identity, and is highlighted in the forms of visual imagery, metaphors, and the brand heritage. The
51
’Instantiation: Reframing brand communication’ – Chris Barnham (p. 205)
ibid (p. 208)
53
‘Building Strong Brands’ – David Aaker (p. 79)
54
ibid (p. 78-82)
55
ibid (p. 82-83)
56
ibid (p. 84-85)
52
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Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
significance of a symbol can be found in that a strong one is able to quickly provide links between the
organisation, the product, and how they are perceived by consumers.
Finally, the brand as a person57 offers a perspective of identity that enriches and rounds off the brand.
The brand is figuratively an actual person, with personality traits and characteristics like a person. A
brand can be used as the vehicle for the consumer to express their own personality, essentially
strengthening the brand through the self-expressive benefit; effectively providing a basis for a
consumer-brand relationship. Aaker presented the Brand Personality Scale (BPS)58 in his book as a set
of traits designed to measure and structure a brand’s personality: Sincerity, Excitement, Competence,
Sophistication, and Ruggedness. These traits had then been divided into facets within the trait to offer
varied texture and depth as descriptors (Appendix c). Also like a person, a brand can easily span across
the five primary traits – illustrating the complex nature of a brand personality and the intricate task of
developing a personality. How it is created can be simply clarified through the observance of brand
personality drivers59. These drivers include: product category, package, price, attributes, user imagery,
sponsorships, symbol, age, ad style, origin, company image, CEO, and celebrity endorsers.
According to a paper written by Anuja Pandey on ‘Understanding Consumer Perception of Brand
Personality’, the construct has gained significance by offering a distinctive set of associations in
consumer memory, thereby building and boosting brand equity. The consumer is able to relate to the
brand on a personal level, and choices made are based on preference, trust, and loyalty60 – aspects that
companies strive to attain and retain for their products. She further expands Aaker’s original BPS by
adding the Psychological Five Factors of openness (or intellect), conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism (or emotional stability)61 (Appendix d).
A paper written on the congruence between brand and human personality further suggested that
consumers tend to regard their possessions as part of themselves, and build their own personal
identities in part using their possessions62. Brands have the ability of exemplifying social meaning, and
this is exuded in our selection of brand usage. Referring to Levy (1959), Belk (1988), and Sirgy (1982),
they further discuss this congruence by suggesting that ‘the products a consumer buys have personal
and social meaning and they reinforce the way the consumer thinks about himself. Brands act as social
57
ibid (p. 83-84)
ibid (p. 144)
59
ibid (p. 146)
60
‘Understanding Consumer Perception of Brand Personality’ – Anuja Pandey (p. 28)
61
ibid (p. 29)
62
‘On congruence between brand and human personalities’ – Natlia Maehle & Rotem Shneor (p. 45)
58
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Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
signals with congruity between brand and user self-image, which is regarded as a key motivational
factor in consumer choice’63. The same relationship is discussed on the self-confirmatory action
between self-image and brand preference by reinforcing consumer self-concept. They inevitably
conclude that consumers with varying personalities tend to prefer brands that match their own
personalities64.
3.3.3
The PR Perspective
To help understand the link between PR and marketing efforts, a quote reported in Kitchen (1999) 65
summarises, ‘Working in support of marketing, PR has a primary function to promote. It also has to
protect and project. This requires PR thinking across the full spectrum of an organisation’s operations,
or a series of irreconcilable differences and conflicts will invariably arise’. Kotler and Mindak (1978)
identified five models relating PR and marketing, and the most effective from the IMC perspective
integrates marketing and PR as overlapping functions: Marketing Public Relations (MPR)66. The
significant feature of MPR is that it does not have to lead to direct purchase, but it can attempt to
affect the attitudes, opinions, and satisfaction of consumers, and aid in effective mediation of crisis
situations67. The tools of MPR therefore involve a combination of PR and marketing activities: media
releases, media conferences, media contact and entertainment, publicity events and ‘stunts’, lobbying,
promotional materials, advertising, sponsorship and donations, product placement, advertorials,
corporate identity materials, company website, magazines, exclusive, interviews and presentations,
and facility visits68.
An extended outlook of MPR can be seen as a form of behind the scenes PR management, perpetuating
viral/buzz marketing, online communities, websites, and word-of-mouth as mechanisms for consumers
to communicate and spread brand awareness and interest. Viral marketing is another dimension of the
word-of-mouth concept, while buzz marketing can also have a major effect on moulding opinions and
attitudes as it ‘generates excitement, creates publicity, and conveys new relevant brand-related
information through unexpected or even outrageous means’69. Buzz marketing is one angle to generate
awareness and sales in the form of, for example, controversy in the media, amongst interest groups
and throughout target publics.
63
ibid
ibid (p. 51)
65
‘Integrated Marketing Communications’ – Pickton & Broderick (p. 552)
66
‘Integrated Marketing Communications’ – Pickton & Broderick (p. 554)
67
ibid (p. 555)
68
ibid (p. 560-565)
69
‘Marketing Management’ – Kotler & Keller (p. 586)
64
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Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
Greg Metz Thomas Jr, explores the concept of buzz marketing in his article ‘Building the buzz in the hive
mind’, and begins in stating that ‘innovations tend to follow an adoption cycle’. This means that the
‘innovators’ are the first to adopt a new product in the consumer market, and are then followed by
others. Therefore, when a business intends to create some ‘buzz’ about their product, they must
identify the innovators to set off the trend. According to Thomas, there are two types of buzz, codified
and uncodified. Uncodified buzz occurs when consumers who have experienced a product
communicate about the product through various forms of channels (eg. e-mail, blogs, list serves,
personal websites, chat groups and consumer rating sites), and with the proliferation of the Internet,
the possibilities are numerous70. One must also consider that while uncodified buzz is great, companies
can also encourage and develop buzz instead of relying solely on the chance that buzz will be
prompted. The means for codified buzz71 are just as numerous, and these include: observability,
referrals, reviews, ratings, customer communities, and embedded customers (popular with gamers –
embedded customers augment, change or add to an offer).
The theoretical discussion so far has led to the culmination of the significance of the word-of-mouth, or
WOM, concept. In an article presenting a study of WOM, their point of departure was based on earlier
studies that had suggested WOM is ‘nine times as effective as traditional advertising in converting
unfavourable or neutral predispositions into positive attitudes’72. The logic is that WOM provides a
credible means of persuasion as the communicator is assumed to not have a vested interest in selling
the product. For the purposes of this discussion, the same definition as the one used in the article will
prevail: ‘WOM is generally agreed to be the informal communication between private parties in which
products or services are evaluated’73. It is also generally assumed to be very positive/negative, vivid,
memorable, may/may not involve an active recommendation, and may include some complaining,
rumour instigation, and/or product denigration. The study concluded that WOM embodied the themes
of valence, richness of message content, and strength of advocacy. Communicators tended to be very
descriptive, evocative, and engaging; supporting Herr et al.’s (1991) argument that WOM is much more
appealing than print information74. Strength of advocacy is important to note as well, since this aspect
can vary according to the communicators conviction, and in so doing affecting the influential capability
70
‘Building the buzz in the hive mind’ – Greg Metz Thomas, Jr. (p. 64)
‘Building the buzz in the hive mind’ – Greg Metz Thomas, Jr. (p. 66-69)
72
‘Conceptualizing word-of-mouth activity, triggers and conditions: an exploratory study’ – Mazzarol; Sweeney;
and Soutar (p. 1476)
73
ibid (p. 1477)
74
ibid (p. 1482)
71
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Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
of WOM75. Finally, the triggers of WOM have a predisposition to come in the form of a leading
question, word association, or promotion (which can include news stories)76, from where
communicators will recount their ideas and experiences.
4
ANALYSIS
Drawing from the concepts presented in the theoretical framework, it is now possible to observe their
application to the GTA case. As a point of departure, it is clear that Rockstar Games developed their
corporate identity in order to help illustrate the personalities behind the games they produce;
essentially creating a brand personality that consumers can base some form of relationship upon,
resulting in fierce loyalty and passion for the brand (in this case, the brand being GTA).
Despite their own turbulent past with real life criminal charges (which adds a certain real life edge to
the company), Rockstar Games embraces their eccentricity as a company that revolutionised the video
game industry. Their unconventional behaviour is further seen in other PR stunts/marketing ploys such
as throwing their own unique parties, striving for the M rating, and exploiting alternative methods to
communicate with their media counterparts to name a few. By refusing to be traditionally diplomatic in
certain areas of behaviour, they have developed a rebellious and ‘rockstar’ image – an image that their
target audience is drawn to. On the BPS scale, it is reasonable to suggest that Rockstar Games as an
organisation embodies the dimensions of excitement, competence, and ruggedness, with facets of
daring, up-to-date, intelligent, successful, and tough; qualities that are easily recognisable in their GTA
games. By offering personality traits to their brand, it is understandable why certain consumers feel
drawn to their games – consumers are able to express their own daring and edginess. From the AIDA
model perspective, the emotional aspect of the buying process is not lost on them. To some extent, it
seems that consumers feel they can relate to GTA purely for its entertainment value whilst enjoying
some form of emotional benefit. The GTA games are clearly not shopping, convenience, or unsought77
purchases, and it is evident that their strive to promote GTA as a brand that is raw and distinctive
stimulates emotions that pique consumers’ interest, leading to eventual purchase as a specialty good.
There are numerous tactics a company can employ to inspire purchase. From the MPR perspective
discussed earlier, WOM and buzz marketing are just two concepts evident when observing some of
GTA’s communication material. Despite the fact that in the long run, WOM and buzz could not be
controlled entirely by Rockstar Games, it is very possible that part of the PR strategy was to instigate
75
ibid (p. 1483)
ibid (p. 1484)
77
‘Marketing Management’ – Kotler & Keller (p. 360)
76
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Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
and nurture these particular forms of PR. GTA has a very loyal following of fans comprised from online
communities (eg. Social Club78 - which is actually mediated by Rockstar Games), fan websites (eg.
gta4.net), and social medias (eg. a GTA group on Facebook.com79) to name a few mediums. These
examples illustrate how consumers can easily spread the word amongst themselves about GTA,
without direct marketing ploys from Rockstar – creating a scenario where information and opinions
exchanged are outwardly impartial, whether they actually are or not. Social medias such as Facebook
and Myspace can have vast influences on the opinions and attitudes of existing and potential
consumers. Fan websites and online communities instigated and maintained by a shared knowledge of
the brand80 have similar effects. WOM allows for consumers to objectively talk about the game, and
influence each other’s attitudes and opinions. The buzz, therefore, that arose throughout the media
and the internet on the subject of the games’ questionable moral nature only fuelled WOM. Media
attention surrounding lawsuits that were sparked by the games served to boost the hype. Once more
publics became aware of the game, more opinions were exchanged, and more information was
available. Whether the buzz was negative or not, it generated the necessary excitement or hype to
justify even more publicity; resulting in both codified (eg. ratings, reviews, and observability) and
uncodified (eg. chat groups, fan sites, and social medias) buzz. Another attraction of GTA worth
mentioning is codified in their age suitability rating. The effect is similar to that of rated R movies. Once
a game or a movie has been rated unsuitable for consumers under the age of 18, for example, interest
rises amongst teenagers because it now seems almost taboo. Marketers are intentionally blunt about
the reasons behind the high ratings, and these reasons have a tendency to increase the hype; ‘Indeed,
once the movie was embraced by high school juniors and seniors, it was hard to stop interest from
spreading to younger kids (…) *American Pie+ is probably the most talked-about movie today’81.
WOM and buzz marketing are the result of PR management, which brings the discussion to GTA’s
relationship with their media/public. As Grunig mentioned in his article about media relations, it is just
good PR to communicate about problems and relationships with media counterparts and key publics.
The strategy is pre-emptive; communicate before issues become hot topics. On this note, Rockstar
Games ensured that their key publics were informed about the company, products, and other pertinent
issues. This is evident in, for example, interviews that were given, press releases, review materials, and
stories fed to journalists. The interviews that were conducted were a way for Rockstar Games to defend
78
http://socialclub.rockstargames.com/
http://www.facebook.com/home.php?ref=home#!/pages/Grand-TheftAuto/11075126698?ref=search&sid=1678680028.2955837152..1
80
‘Marketing Management’ – Kotler & Keller (p. 585)
81
‘It’s Rated R – and under-age kids are lining up’ – Bruce Orwall (Wall Street Journal)
79
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Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
their product, and build credibility. Journalistic material and information resulted in ratings, reviews,
and exclusives. Admittedly, there were cases where Rockstar did not seem prepared. The ‘Hot Coffee’
scandal resulted in clearly pointing out that Rockstar could have handled the situation a lot better than
they did, leading to question the extent to which Rockstar were aware of the issue before it flared up.
It is clear, however, that being part of an industry where hype is important for sales, Rockstar
maintained close working relationships with the media. According to the liberal pluralist perspective,
the media controls what is published and therefore are not subject to direct influences. The critical
theory perspective, however, implies that the media is influenced by the information they are given
and therefore their sources have some control over what is published. Combining both perspectives
rationalises the view that good media relations results in good publicity. Reviews and exclusives are
very important in building hype, and the only way reviews and exclusives exist are if the journalists are
kept informed. The article ‘PR and the Game Media: How PR Shapes What You Think About Games’82
suitably supports the assumption that the PR team supplies the necessary information and material to
journalists. Furthermore, based on comments made by former PR rep Todd Zuniga in the same article,
Rockstar Games seemed to have a rocky relationship with the media; ‘Our bosses tried to intimidate us
into doing everything we could—it was total mental warfare. The big guys knew in their hearts that we
couldn't change a journalist's mind, but they still pushed hard for us to try, just in case we could (…)
Retaliation against the press was common practice at the house that Grand Theft Auto built. “That's all
we ever did at Rockstar,” says Zuniga. “Even the lamest line of text that didn't praise the game would be
viewed as a sleight. If a preview read 99.9% positive, they'd labor over how to 'fix' that .1%. It was
ridiculous and frustrating. 'Ban IGN, let's go with 1up! Wait, 1up said something .2% bad—ban 1up!
GameSpot's already banned—what now?' It just felt like the blind leading the blind.”’83. Apparently, if
they could not control the media, they did not communicate with the media. To some extent, this
behaviour indicates the blunt and raw nature of the company’s corporate personality, and also
illustrates how Rockstar Games was very concerned about media control. Clearly Rockstar Games had
some influence on the media agenda, which begs the question of to what extent?
As a former PR rep for the company, Brian Baglow84 admitted that he wasn’t sure he believed the
whole controversial show wasn’t just a part of the entire PR strategy. He is quoted as saying, ‘Then the
publishers hired Max Clifford and it all kicked off. I’m still trying to work out whether he came to fight
82
’PR and the Game Media: How PR shapes what you think about games’ – Robert Ashley and Shawn Elliott
(Gamasutra)
83
ibid
84
‘Making a Killing’ – Iain S. Bruce (Herald Scotland)
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Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
the firestorm or to start it’. The article, ‘Making A Killing’ by Iain S. Bruce, goes on to say that according
to marketing experts Golley Slater there are very few accidents in marketing and that if a pedigreed
company like Rockstar Games started generating controversy, it was on purpose. With their long
history as a publishing firm, Rockstar Games, has in modern times become known as a company that
can turn controversy into sales, and has done very well doing so. The marketing experts further state
that ‘The Manhunt 2 debate has generated a level of publicity it would cost millions to buy, and I’d be
amazed if this wasn’t part of a carefully planned long-term strategy’. An article85 discussing the history
of GTA further implies that marketers and publicist Max Clifford had orchestrated the media outburst
with the intention of targeting young males. It would appear that Rockstar Games’ strategy has been to
throw a blanket of controversy over their games, as the GTA series has generated just as much if not
more publicity as its sister series, Manhunt. The company personality they have built seems to serve as
an umbrella brand to represent their products.
5
CONCLUSION
The thesis statement questions the validity of the claim that GTA’s success was in part due to the
controversy that surrounded the games. Based on the theoretical discussion and analysis, the
conclusion that can be drawn is the following:
The generated controversy was part of a greater PR/marketing tactic. Rockstar Games’, and GTA’s,
brand personality is implicitly consistent with the observable PR/marketing strategy. The brand
personality played a role in creating WOM and buzz marketing as well as relating to consumers on a
personal level. Violence and explicit themes in video games can be directly compared to the popularity
of action films, in which violence is the key driver of sales86. The games are targeted towards a
predominately young male demographic, and with the proliferation of the Internet, peer-to-peer WOM
is only natural. Combined with the fact that WOM and buzz marketing results in generating desired
amounts of hype and publicity, it can be assumed that the game sells itself on a functional yet
emotional level as it follows the stages of increasing awareness and recognition.
WOM and buzz marketing also have the ability of shaping attitudes and opinions through the popular
belief that it is objective, and can have a significant influence on end purchase.
Aforementioned, WOM and buzz marketing can be to some extent managed by an intelligent PR
strategy. When considering the amount of media transparency a company has (especially in the
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‘IP Profile: Grand Theft Auto’ – Develop-online.net
‘The Business of Media Violence’ – Media Awareness Network
26
BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
entertainment industry), it is clear that stories leaked to the press may not necessarily be
unintentionally released. In this way, a PR team like the one at Rockstar’s can easily control hype buildup, as well as company image.
As Brian Baglow concluded in his statement about Rockstar, the role of Max Clifford was not to staunch
the flow of controversy, but to lend a helping hand. Max Clifford is known for his eccentric methods,
and he is also known for having expertise knowledge in what he does. The use of outraged parents,
politicians and the right wing press as branding vehicles, saturated the media with controversy and
served to increase awareness and brand recognition.
The controversy generated by GTA and Rockstar Games resulted in notoriety, image/personality
conception, awareness, recognition, publicity, and helped in shaping an extremely loyal fanbase.
Inevitably, controversy sells. To reiterate this in the words of Oscar Wilde himself, ‘The only thing worse
than being talked about is not being talked about’.
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Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
6
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
LITERATURE
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BA Thesis 2010
Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
Pickton, David; and Amanda Broderick. Integrated Marketing Communications. 2nd ed. 2001. Essex: Pearson
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Supervisor: Eva Aas Søndergaard
Josephine Yang Nielsen
BAMMC
Mazzarol, Tim; Sweeney, Jillian C.; and Geoffrey N. Soutar. “Conceptualizing word-of-mouth activity,
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