INFLUENCE OF THE OPPOSING TEAM ON THE PHYSICAL
DEMANDS OF ELITE RUGBY LEAGUE MATCH PLAY
TIM J. GABBETT1,2
1
School of Exercise Science, Australian Catholic University, Brisbane, Australia; and 2School of Human Movement Studies, The
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
ABSTRACT
Gabbett, TJ. Influence of the opposing team on the physical
demands of elite rugby league match play. J Strength Cond Res
27(6): 1629–1635, 2013—This study investigated the influence of
playing standard, and winning and losing on the physical demands
of elite rugby league match play. Twenty-two elite rugby league
players participated in this study. Global positioning system data
were collected during 16 rugby league matches. Players covered
significantly greater (p # 0.05) absolute and relative distance at
high speeds when playing against Bottom 4 teams than when
competing against Top 4 teams. The total distance per minute of
match play and relative distance at low speeds were greater when
matches were won. In addition, a greater absolute and relative
number of maximal accelerations and repeated high-intensity effort
bouts were performed when players were competing in winning
teams than in losing teams. The mean and maximum number of
efforts in a repeated high-intensity effort bout was also higher in
winning teams, although the recovery between efforts was shorter
in losing teams. Moderate (7–17 points) and large ($18 points)
winning margins were associated with greater relative distances
covered and distances covered at low speeds than small winning
margins. No meaningful differences were found in the physical
demands between small, moderate, and large losing margins.
The results of this study demonstrate that the physical demands
of rugby league are greater when winning than losing, and when
competing against lower ranked teams. Furthermore, larger winning
margins are associated with greater physical demands than small
and moderate winning margins, with these physical demands, in
turn, greater than losing margins of any magnitude. These findings
suggest that the competitive advantage of successful elite rugby
league teams is closely linked to their ability to maintain a higher
playing intensity than their less successful counterparts.
KEY WORDS playing standard, activity profiles, GPS, physical
preparation
Address correspondence to Dr. Tim J. Gabbett, tim_gabbett@yahoo.
com.au.
27(6)/1629–1635
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2013 National Strength and Conditioning Association
INTRODUCTION
T
ime-motion analysis has been used extensively to
study the physical demands and movement patterns
of team sports (1,5,8). However, despite the popularity of the sport, studies describing the physical
demands of rugby league are limited, with time-motion analyses restricted to a few studies spanning for a period of 20 years.
In the early 1990s, Meir et al. (17) performed the first timemotion analysis of professional rugby league players. Describing a total of 20 movements and game-specific events, these
authors reported that players covered between 6,500 and 7,900
m during the course of a game, depending on the playing
position. More recently, researchers have studied the highintensity running (14,22,23), sprinting (13), tackling (4,14),
ball-in-play (12), and repeated high-intensity effort demands
(3,13,14) of elite rugby league competitions. Results of timemotion analysis studies have provided important information
to applied sport scientists and strength and conditioning
coaches to assist in the development of game-specific conditioning programs.
Previous studies of team sport athletes (e.g., soccer) have
shown that elite players typically (but not always) perform more
high-intensity running than sub-elite competitors (18), when the
demands of competition are greatest (1). Rampinini et al. (21)
investigated the physical demands of the most and least successful teams competing in the Italian Serie A league and found that
the most successful teams covered greater total distances with
the ball, and more high-intensity and very high–intensity running with the ball. Andersson et al. (1) showed that the amount
of high-intensity running performed by female soccer players
was greater in international than domestic matches. These findings have been confirmed by others (15) who demonstrated
that female soccer players performed more repeated-sprint
bouts in international matches (4.8 bouts per match) than
national (1.0 bout per match) and domestic (1.4 bouts per
match) matches. However, although the physical demands of
team sport competition have been shown to increase with playing standard, results are equivocal with some studies demonstrating lower playing intensity as the competitive standard
increases (8).
One method of investigating the physical demands of
different playing standards is to study the movement patterns
of the best and worst teams in the same competition (8,20).
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Physical Demands of Winning and Losing in Rugby League
Figure 2. Rugby league player wearing the minimaxX global positioning
system unit.
Figure 1. MinimaxX global positioning system unit used in this study.
Di Salvo et al. (8) investigated the high-intensity running
activity of elite soccer players competing in the English Premier
League and found that teams finishing in the bottom 5 (919 6
128 m) and middle 10 (917 6 143 m) league positions completed significantly more total high-intensity running than
teams in the top 5 league positions (885 6 113 m) (8). Using
a slightly different approach, Rampinini et al. (20) studied the
physical demands of one professional soccer team and analyzed
the influence of the opposing team on match performance. In
direct contrast to the findings of Di Salvo et al. (8), the total
distance covered and distance covered in high-intensity running
was higher when competing against the best teams compared
with the worst teams. Clearly, further studies are required to
better understand the relationship between physical match performance and playing standard.
The Australian National Rugby League (NRL) competition is widely regarded as the best rugby league competition
in the world. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the competitive advantage of the best NRL teams is closely linked to
their ability to maintain a higher playing intensity than less
successful teams. However, to date, no study has investigated
if matches involving the best NRL teams are associated with
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the
higher playing intensities than matches involving the worst
NRL teams and whether winning is associated with higher or
lower physical demands than losing. With this in mind, the
purpose of this study was to investigate if higher standard
NRL matches were associated with greater physical demands
than lower standard NRL matches. The influence of playing
standard and winning and losing on the physical demands of
competition were analyzed by comparing (a) the activity
profiles of players competing against high-ranked (Top 4) and
low-ranked (Bottom 4) teams and (b) the activity profiles of
players when their team either won or lost.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
The physical demands of elite rugby league matches were
investigated using a prospective case series experimental
design. Global positioning system (GPS) data were collected
over an NRL season and were analyzed by comparing the
activity profiles of players competing against high-ranked
(Top 4) and low-ranked (Bottom 4) teams, and when their
team either won or lost. Differences among the matches of
various competitive standing were compared using Cohen’s
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TABLE 1. Physical and perceptual demands of elite rugby league match play when competing against Top 4 and
Bottom 4 teams.*
Time (min)
Total distance (m)
Relative distance (m$min21)
Low speed
Distance (m)
Relative distance (m$min21)
High speed
Distance (m)
Relative distance (m$min21)
Accelerations
Maximal accelerations (n)
Maximal accelerations (n$min21)
Collisions
Mild collisions (n)
Relative mild collisions (n$min21)
Moderate collisions (n)
Relative moderate collisions (n$min21)
Heavy collisions (n)
Relative heavy collisions (n$min21)
Total collisions (n)
Relative total collisions (n$min21)
Repeated high-intensity efforts
Bouts (n)
Efforts per bout (n)
Maximum efforts per bout (n)
Mean effort duration (s)
Maximum effort duration (s)
Effort recovery (s)
Bout frequency
Rating of perceived exertion (au)
Top 4
Bottom 4
Effect size
60.9 6 4.4
6,144.2 6 457.9
101.2 6 2.5
67.4 6 4.4
6,795.7 6 469.8
102.2 6 4.0
0.30
0.28
0.06
5,863.4 6 432.4
97.1 6 2.8
6,405.8 6 449.0
96.5 6 4.1
0.25
0.03
300.6 6 31.6†
4.7 6 0.3†
393.3 6 36.9
5.7 6 0.4
0.55
0.57
79.5 6 8.0
1.3 6 0.1
75.8 6 7.4
1.2 6 0.1
0.10
0.18
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
0.1
0.01
1.0
0.02
0.8
0.01
1.5
0.02
0.05
0.00
0.08
0.11
0.04
0.28
0.07
0.00
12.0 6 1.2
4.1 6 0.2
6.3 6 0.8
1.0 6 0.1
4.6 6 0.2
6.5 6 0.2
1 every 7.0 min
7.9 6 0.2
0.08
0.00
0.12
0.39
0.00
0.14
0.06
0.66
0.4
0.01
6.9
0.13
10.3
0.18
17.6
0.31
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
0.1
0.01
1.2
0.02
1.1
0.02
1.9
0.03
12.5 6 1.3
4.1 6 0.2
6.7 6 0.6
0.9 6 0.1
4.6 6 0.2
6.7 60.4
1 every 6.8 min
8.5 6 0.2†
0.4
0.01
7.3
0.12
10.5
0.16
18.2
0.29
*Data are mean 6 SE.
†Significant differences (p # 0.05) between Top 4 and Bottom 4 teams. Effect sizes of ,0.09, 0.10–0.49, 0.50–0.79, and .0.80
considered trivial, small, moderate, and large, respectively.
effect size (ES) statistic (7). It was hypothesized that meaningful differences in activity profiles would exist among the
best and worst teams, with the physical demands being
greatest when playing higher ranked teams. Furthermore,
it was hypothesized that the intensity of matches would be
greater in winning than losing teams.
Subjects
Twenty-two NRL players (mean 6 SE, aged 23.6 6 0.5
years) participated in this study. All participants received
a clear explanation of the study, including information on
the risks and benefits, and written consent was obtained. All
experimental procedures were approved by the Institutional
Review Board for Human Investigation.
Global Positioning System Analysis
Global positioning system analysis was completed during
16 NRL matches. Movement was recorded by a minimaxX
GPS unit (Team 2.5; Catapult Innovations, Melbourne,
Australia) sampling at 5 Hz (Figure 1). The GPS signal provided information on speed, distance, position, and acceleration. The GPS unit also included triaxial accelerometers
and gyroscopes sampling at 100 Hz, to provide information
on physical collisions and repeated high-intensity efforts.
The unit was worn in a small vest on the upper back of
the players (Figure 2).
Data were categorized into (a) movement speed bands,
corresponding to low (0–5 m$s21) and high (. 5 m$s21)
speeds (14); (b) maximal accelerations ($2.79 m$s22) (2); (c)
mild, moderate, and heavy collisions (11); and (d) repeated
high-intensity effort bouts (14). A repeated high-intensity
effort bout was defined as 3 or more maximal acceleration,
high speed, or contact efforts with ,21 seconds recovery
between efforts (13,14). The minimaxX units have been
shown to have acceptable validity and reliability (19).
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Physical Demands of Winning and Losing in Rugby League
TABLE 2. Influence of winning and losing on the physical and perceptual demands of elite rugby league match play.*
Time (min)
Total distance (m)
Relative distance (m$min21)
Low speed
Distance (m)
Relative distance (m$min21)
High speed
Distance (m)
Relative distance (m$min21)
Accelerations
Maximal accelerations (n)
Maximal accelerations (n$min21)
Collisions
Mild collisions (n)
Relative mild collisions (n$min21)
Moderate collisions (n)
Relative moderate collisions (n$min21)
Heavy collisions (n)
Relative heavy collisions (n$min21)
Total collisions (n)
Relative collisions (n$min21)
Repeated high-intensity efforts
Bouts (n)
Efforts per bout (n)
Maximum efforts per bout (n)
Mean effort duration (s)
Maximum effort duration (s)
Effort recovery (s)
Bout frequency
Rating of perceived exertion (au)
Match won
Match lost
Effect size
62.0 6 3.9
6,542.9 6 417.5
107.9 6 3.5†
60.2 6 3.6
5,956.8 6 340.0
100.5 6 2.7
0.08
0.26
0.40
6,245.0 6 398.2
103.4 6 3.6†
5,610.6 6 318.2
94.9 6 2.6
0.30
0.46
312.5 6 28.0
5.0 6 0.3
348.3 6 29.5
5.7 6 0.4
0.20
0.32
91.7 6 7.1†
1.6 6 0.1†
71.4 6 5.5
1.3 6 0.1
0.54
0.50
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
0.1
0.01
0.9
0.16
0.8
0.19
1.5
0.1
0.16
0.00
0.21
0.10
0.16
0.23
0.02
0.00
11.4 6 0.9
4.1 6 0.2
6.2 6 0.4
1.0 6 0.1
4.6 6 0.2
6.4 6 0.2
1 every 6.7 min
8.2 6 0.2
0.42
0.40
0.51
0.39
0.17
0.50
0.14
0.23
0.4
0.01
6.6
0.13
10.9
0.19
17.9
0.3
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
0.1
0.01
0.8
0.02
0.9
0.02
1.6
0.1
13.9 6 1.1†
4.5 6 0.2†
7.9 6 0.7†
0.9 6 0.1
4.8 6 0.2
7.1 6 0.2†
1 every 7.1 min
8.4 6 0.2
0.3
0.01
7.7
0.14
10.1
0.17
18.1
0.3
*Data are mean 6 SE.
†Significant differences (p # 0.05) between matches won and lost. Effect sizes of ,0.09, 0.10–0.49, 0.50–0.79, and .0.80
considered trivial, small, moderate, and large, respectively.
In addition, the minimaxX units have been shown to offer
a valid measurement of tackles and repeated efforts commonly observed in collision sports (11).
Players also provided a rating of their perceived effort
during individual matches using a modified rating of
perceived exertion scale (10). Perceptions of effort estimates
were obtained 30 minutes after completing the match.
are reported as mean 6 SE. Second, given the practical nature
of the study, differences in the demands between Top 4
and Bottom 4 teams, and winning and losing teams were also
analyzed using Cohen’s ES statistic (7). Effect sizes of ,0.09,
0.10–0.49, 0.50–0.79, and .0.80 were considered trivial, small,
moderate, and large, respectively (7).
Statistical Analyses
RESULTS
Differences in the physical demands between high-ranked (i.e.,
Top 4) and low-ranked (Bottom 4), and winning and losing
teams were compared using statistical significance testing
and by using a practical approach based on the real-world
relevance of the results (6). First, differences in the physical
demands (i.e., distance covered at low and high speeds; mild,
moderate, and heavy collisions; and repeated high-intensity
effort activity) between Top 4 and Bottom 4 teams, and winning and losing teams were compared using an independent
t-test. The level of significance was set at p # 0.05, and all data
The physical demands of elite rugby league match play when
competing against Top 4 and Bottom 4 teams are shown in
Table 1. Players covered significantly greater (p # 0.05, ES =
0.55–0.57) absolute and relative distance at high speeds when
playing against Bottom 4 teams than when competing against
Top 4 teams. The number of mild, moderate, and heavy collisions were similar (p . 0.05, ES = 0.00–0.28) whether competing against Top 4 or Bottom 4 teams.
The physical demands of competition were greatest when
matches were won (Table 2). Players covered significantly
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teams for the number of mild,
moderate, and heavy collisions.
Moderate (7–17 points) and
large ($18 points) winning
margins were associated with
greater relative distances covered and distances covered at
low speeds than small winning
margins. Ratings of perceived
exertion were lower when
teams won by large margins
and higher when teams lost
by large margins (Figure 3).
DISCUSSION
This study investigated the influence of playing standard and
winning and losing on the physical demands of elite rugby
league match play. The results
of this study demonstrate that
the physical demands of rugby
league are greater when winning
than when losing and when
competing against lower ranked
teams. Furthermore, larger winning margins are associated with
greater physical demands than
small and moderate winning
margins, with these physical
demands, in turn, greater than
losing margins of any magnitude. These findings suggest that
the competitive advantage of
successful NRL teams is closely
linked to their ability to maintain
a higher playing intensity than
their less successful counterparts.
Figure 3. Physical and perceptual demands of elite rugby league match play with a small (#6 points), moderate
(7–17 points), and large ($18 points) winning or losing margin. Data are mean 6 SE. Effect sizes (ES) represent
This study found greater
the magnitude of difference between the smallest and largest values. Effect sizes of ,0.09, 0.10–0.49, 0.50–
physical
demands in winning
0.79, and .0.80 considered trivial, small, moderate, and large, respectively.
than losing teams. Players from
winning teams covered greater
total distances per minute of
match play, including greater distances at low speeds.
greater (p # 0.05) total distance per minute of match play
However, no significant differences were found between
(ES = 0.40) and greater relative distance at low speeds (ES =
winning and losing teams for the amount of high-speed
0.46) when matches were won. In addition, a greater absorunning performed. These findings demonstrate that although
lute (ES = 0.54) and relative (ES = 0.50) number of maximal
winning and losing teams are equally able to perform the
accelerations, and repeated high-intensity effort bouts were
high-intensity running demands of competition, winning
performed when players were competing in winning teams
teams are better able to maintain a higher intensity during
than in losing teams. The mean and maximum number
recovery from these high-speed efforts.
of efforts in a repeated high-intensity effort bout was also
Players from winning teams performed more maximal
higher in winning teams (ES = 0.40–0.51), although the
accelerations and a greater number and intensity of repeatedrecovery between efforts was significantly shorter (p # 0.05,
effort bouts. Although the distances covered at low and
ES = 0.50) in losing teams. No significant differences (p . 0.05,
high speeds are important to elite rugby league players,
ES = 0.00–0.23) were found between winning and losing
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Physical Demands of Winning and Losing in Rugby League
previous studies have emphasized the importance of repeated
high-intensity effort ability to competitive success in this sport
(3,13,14,16). We have recently shown that players perform, on
average, 9 6 1 repeated high-intensity effort bouts per game
(13). Furthermore, recent evidence has shown that the majority
(approximately 70%) of the tries scored occur in close proximity to a repeated high-intensity effort bout (3), lending support
to the suggestion that the ability (or inability) to perform these
activities could prove critical to the outcome of the game.
These findings have also received support from the work of
others (16) who demonstrated that repeated high-intensity
effort exercise (involving sprinting and tackling) was associated
with higher heart rate and perceived exertion, and greater
reductions in sprinting performance than repeated sprinting
in isolation. Collectively, the present and previous (3,13,16)
findings demonstrate the importance of repeated high-intensity
effort ability to both performance and fatigue tolerance in elite
rugby league players. Perhaps more importantly, this study
is the first to demonstrate the importance of repeated highintensity effort ability to competitive success in elite rugby
league.
While few differences in physical demands existed between
Top 4 and Bottom 4 teams, in contrast to our hypothesis, this
study found greater absolute and relative amounts of highspeed running when players were competing against lower
ranked teams. A possible confounding influence in this finding
is that the physical demands were greater when teams were
winning, and by nature of their ladder position, lower ranked
teams lose more regularly. Although it is possible that lowranked teams may be required to increase playing intensity
when competing against higher ranked teams, we are more
circumspect in our interpretation of this finding. Indeed, losing
teams are likely to be required to perform more defense, and
cover-defend against a greater number of line breaks and
tackle breaks. It is plausible that the poorer match performance
of losing teams results in a greater amount of scrambling in
defense, which in turn, increases the amount of high-speed
running performed in competition.
Players covered greater total distance when the team won
by large margins; however, this increased total distance was
accomplished predominantly through increases in the
amount of low-intensity activity performed. There were
only small differences (ES = 0.38) in high-speed running
when matches were won by small (#6 points), moderate
(7–17 points), or large ($18 points) margins. However,
although insignificant differences were found between small,
moderate, and large losing margins for total distance and
distance covered at low speeds, greater distance was covered
at high speeds when teams lost by large margins. These
findings provide further support for the suggestion that performing large amounts of defense may increase the highspeed running demands of elite rugby league match play.
To date, only one study has documented the physical
demands of attack and defense in elite rugby league players,
with this study finding higher work rates in the majority
1634
the
of positions when attacking than defending (23). Clearly,
further studies examining the physical demands of rugby
league attack and defensive play, with particular reference
to field position, may provide important data to inform
rugby league strength and conditioning programs.
Although the physical demands were greater when winning
than losing, and when competing against lower ranked teams,
player’s perceptions of those demands were greatest when
competing against higher ranked teams. Furthermore, although
larger winning margins were associated with greater physical
demands than small and moderate winning margins, the perceptions of effort were greater with smaller winning margins
and larger losing margins. Collectively, these results suggest an
uncoupling of the physical and perceptual demands of elite
rugby league match play. In addition, these findings suggest
that matches against Top 4 teams, and with small winning
margins and large losing margins, provide greater psychological stress than matches against lower ranked teams, or when
winning by a large margin and losing by a small margin.
Previous investigations of professional rugby league match
play have shown an association between the number of
collisions performed and the amount of muscle soreness,
muscle damage (as estimated from creatine kinase concentration), perceptual fatigue, and neuromuscular fatigue (as
measured via a counter movement jump) experienced by
players (24). Although the degree of muscle damage sustained in competition was not a specific purpose of this study,
it is possible that losing teams sustained greater muscle damage as a consequence of the physical dominance of winning
teams. Further studies investigating the influence of winning
and losing on markers of perceptual fatigue, muscle soreness,
muscle damage, and neuromuscular fatigue are warranted.
In conclusion, this study investigated the influence of playing
standard and winning and losing on the physical demands of
elite rugby league match play. The results of this study
demonstrate that the physical demands of rugby league are
greater when winning than losing and when competing against
lower ranked teams. Furthermore, larger winning margins are
associated with greater physical demands than small and
moderate winning margins, with these physical demands, in
turn, greater than losing margins of any magnitude. These
findings suggest that the competitive advantage of successful
NRL teams is closely linked to their ability to maintain a higher
playing intensity than their less successful counterparts.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
This study provides important information that can be applied
by sport scientists and strength and conditioning coaches
involved in the physical preparation of elite rugby league teams.
First, the physical demands (e.g., distance covered, maximal
accelerations, and repeated high-intensity effort performance)
of the winning teams were significantly greater than losing
teams, and also greater than previously reported for professional rugby league players (14,25). These findings suggest
that the physical conditioning programs designed to prepare
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players to compete in elite rugby league matches may differ
from programs designed to win elite rugby league matches. It
is likely that preparing players for the average demands of
competition may result in players being under-prepared for
the most demanding passages of play (14). Equally, given the
differences in physical demands between winning and losing
teams, preparing players for the average demands of competition may result in them being unable to perform the greater
demands associated with winning matches.
Second, whereas repeated high-intensity effort activity
(in the form of sprinting and tackling) has been shown to
result in greater physiological stress and fatigue than
repeated sprinting in isolation (16), this study also demonstrates the important contribution that this quality makes to
competitive success. The use of game-specific repeatedeffort conditioning that involves rapid accelerations, sprinting, and collisions, and short recovery periods, is likely to
improve repeated high-intensity effort ability and ultimately
competitive performances.
Third, winning teams were better able to maintain
intensity in the recovery periods between high-speed running efforts. Whereas previous studies have shown that the
use of active recovery between high-intensity training efforts
results in reduced training performance than passive recovery (9), these findings suggest that conditioning coaches may
benefit from manipulating the intensity of recovery in training. The use of high-intensity interval (e.g., maximal aerobic
speed) training that involves a moderate-intensity recovery
period between high-intensity efforts may condition players
to maintain a higher pacing strategy during competition than
if passive recovery alone was used between efforts.
Finally, player’s perceptions of the competitive demands
were greatest when competing against Top 4 teams and when
winning by small margins and losing by large margins. From
a practical perspective, these findings could be used by applied
sport scientists and strength and conditioning staff to provide
insight into subsequent physical conditioning and recovery
practices. It is likely that after matches against higher ranked
teams, players will experience greater perceptual fatigue, and
therefore require greater recovery than when competing
against lower ranked teams. Similarly, larger winning margins
and smaller losing margins were associated with lower perceptions of effort, and presumably reduced perceptual fatigue.
If adequate recovery time between matches is available, additional conditioning may be beneficial following these matches
associated with lower psychological stress.
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