Chapter 3
The Structures
of Music
Musical
Instruments
Key Terms
Instrument families
Stringed instruments
• Bow
• pizzicato
Woodwind
instruments
• Single-reed
• Double-reed
Brass instruments
Percussion
instruments
• Pitched
• Unpitched
Keyboard
instruments
• Action
• Stops
Plucked stringed
instruments
Key Terms
Orchestra
Orchestral seating plan
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Strings
Woodwinds
Brass
Percussion
Key Terms
Stringed instruments
Violin
Viola
Cello
Bass viol
Harp
Brass instruments
Trumpet
French horn
Trombone
• Tenor trombone
• Bass trombone
Tuba
Key Terms
Woodwind
instruments
Flute
• Piccolo
• Alto flute
• Bass flute
Recorder
Clarinet
• E-flat clarinet
• Bass clarinet
Oboe
• English horn
Bassoon
• Contrabassoon
Saxophone
• Alto saxophone
• Tenor saxophone
Key Terms
Pitched percussion
instruments
Timpani
Glockenspiel
Xylophone
Marimba
Vibraphone
Celesta
Tubular bells
Unpitched percussion
instruments
Cymbals
Triangle
Tam-tam
Snare drum
Tenor drum
Bass drum
Key Terms
Keyboard instruments
Piano
Harpsichord
Clavichord
Organ
• Pipe organ
Electronic keyboard
instruments
• Synthesizer
Plucked stringed
instruments
Guitar
Mandolin
Lute
Theorbo
Archlute
Electric guitar
Stringed Instruments
A bow strung with horsehair “scrapes”
against a string
The string’s vibration is carried via the
bridge to the instrument’s body
The hollow body amplifies the sound
The left hand “stops” the string at different
locations, changing the length of the
vibrating string
• Longer string = lower pitch
• Shorter string = higher pitch
Stringed Instruments
Different bow strokes create different
dynamics and articulations:
• Legato
• Staccato
Player can play a melody on one string at a
time, or play chords on two or more
strings simultaneously
Player can also pluck the strings:
• Pizzicato
Violin Family
Violin (“soprano/alto” range)
• Versatile, can be forceful or delicate, brilliant or
songlike
• Four strings tuned in fifths
• Held horizontally under chin
• Player can stand or sit
Violin Family
Viola (“tenor” range)
• Mellow, “throaty” quality, but can also be
powerful and intense
• Four strings tuned in fifths
• Held horizontally under chin
• Player can stand or sit
Violin Family
Cello (“bass” range)
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Rich, gorgeous, singing tone
Four strings tuned in fifths
Instrument stands vertically on the floor
Seated player leans neck back toward left
shoulder, holds body between the knees
Bass Viol
Very low “bass” range
Deep, mellow, “chocolate” sound
Four strings tuned in fourths
Instrument stands vertically on the floor
Player stands behind it (or sits on a tall stool)
More often called string bass, double bass, or
just bass
• Usually bowed in classical music, usually
plucked in jazz
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Harp
Concert harp has 47 strings, covers six
and a half octaves
Strings correspond to white keys on
keyboard: one string for each letter name
Seven pedals add sharps and flats
• e.g., the A pedal can raise or lower all A strings
by a half step
Normally plucked; glissando a popular
special effect
Woodwind Instruments
Tube-shaped instruments; may be straight,
bent, or curved
Players blow into tube via a mouthpiece
Sounds result from vibrations in the
column of air inside the tube
Players open or close holes bored along
the length of the tube, in effect shortening
or lengthening the air column
• Longer air column = lower pitch
• Shorter air column = higher pitch
Flute Family
Long cylindrical tube held horizontally
Mouthpiece an open hole on the side
Players set air column vibrating by
blowing across the mouthpiece
• Like tooting on a Coke bottle, but more
sophisticated
Elaborate key mechanism opens and
closes holes in tube
Flute Family Instruments
Flute (“soprano” range)
• Extremely agile; can sound gentle or piercing
Piccolo (very high “soprano” range)
Alto flute (“alto” range)
Bass flute (“tenor/bass” range)
Recorder family
• Old family of flutes held vertically
• Player blows into mouthpiece at the top
• Fingers cover holes directly; no keys
Single-Reeds
A flat piece of cane reed is fastened to the
mouthpiece
Mouthpiece is attached to the top of the
instrument
Blowing into the thin hole between reed
and mouthpiece forces reed to vibrate; this
makes air column in tube vibrate as well
Elaborate key mechanism opens and
closes holes in tube
Single-Reed Instruments
Clarinet family
Clarinet (“soprano/alto” range)
• Rich, flexible, almost vocal sound
• Can sound warm and mellow or shrill and
strident
• Slightly conical tube with narrow bell at end
• Held vertically
Single-Reed Instruments
Clarinet family
E-flat clarinet (high “soprano” range)
• Often used for its shrill, piercing sound
• Short, slightly conical tube with narrow bell at
end
Bass clarinet (“bass” range)
• Deep, rich, mellow sound
• Very long, slightly conical tube is bent forward
at the bottom with a flaring, narrow bell at the
end
Single-Reed Instruments
Saxophone family
Invented by Adolphe Sax in early 1800s
Similar to clarinet family
• Single reed fastened to a mouthpiece
Several important differences
• Wider tube, made of brass, not wood
• More mellow yet more forceful sound
• Tube is bent back at mouthpiece, forward at its
wide, flaring bell
• Often held diagonally across lap
Single-Reed Instruments
Saxophone family instruments
Alto saxophone
Tenor saxophone
• The two most common saxophones
Soprano saxophone
• Straight tube, held like clarinet
Baritone saxophone
Double-Reeds
Mouthpiece consists of two pieces of cane
reed lashed together
Mouthpiece is inserted into hole at top of
instrument
Blowing into mouthpiece forces reeds to
vibrate against each other; this makes air
column in tube vibrate as well
Elaborate key mechanism opens and
closes holes in tube
Double-Reed Instruments
Oboe (“soprano” range)
• Straight tube with narrow bell at end
• Held vertically
English horn (“alto” range)
• Slightly longer straight tube with narrow,
bulbous bell
• Held vertically
Double-Reed Instruments
Bassoon (“tenor/bass” range)
• Very long tube folded back against itself at
bottom end
• Held across the lap at an angle
• Mouthpiece inserted into a curved bocal
Contrabassoon (very low “bass” range)
Brass Instruments
All use long tubes, often coiled
Small, cup-shaped mouthpiece is inserted
into the end of the horn
Player holds mouthpiece to the mouth and
buzzes lips
Lip vibrations force the air column inside
the tube to vibrate
Players control pitch by changing tube
length and “buzzing” speed
• Faster = higher pitch; Slower = lower pitch
Brass Instruments
Trumpet (“soprano” range)
Bright, strong, piercing tone
Long cylindrical tube, bent in several
places with small, flared bell
Three valves used to change tube length
Brass Instruments
French horn (“alto/tenor” range)
Lower, mellower, “thicker” tone
Can sound mysterious, romantic, or heroic
Longer conical tube in coils with very
wide, flared bell
Valves used to change tube length
Player holds instrument with hand in bell
Brass Instruments
Trombone (“tenor/bass” range)
Sound can range from singing and “vocal”
to hard and powerful
Very long cylindrical tube with large, flared
bell
Slide mechanism used to change tube
length
• Also used to create glissando effect
Brass Instruments
Tuba
Deep, full, mellow tone
Less agile than other brass instruments
Extremely long conical tube with many
coils and a very wide flared bell
Valves used to change tube length
Seated player holds instrument in lap
Other Brass Instruments
Cornet
• Like a trumpet, but conical tube makes it sound
more mellow
Flügelhorn
• Like a trumpet, but its larger size makes it
sound deeper and more mellow
Bugle
• Like a trumpet, but without valves
Other Brass Instruments
Euphonium
Baritone horn
Saxhorn
• All three are pitched somewhere between
French horn and tuba
• Rich, mellow sound
Sousaphone
• Portable, marching band version of tuba
• Player carries it slung over the shoulder, bell in
the air
Percussion Instruments
Instruments that are struck, slapped,
scraped, and so on
Vibrating object may be a stretched
membrane (a drumhead) or a solid or
hollow piece of wood, metal, or plastic
May play specific pitches (xylophone) or
indefinite ones (bass drum)
Percussion instruments can play louder
and softer than any other family
Timpani
Large, hemispherical (kettle-shaped)
drums come in several sizes, used in
groups of two or more
Played with felt mallets
Can be tuned to specific pitches
• Usually plays a bass line
Player tunes drums with foot pedals
(sometimes with screws)
• Greater tension = higher pitch
• Less tension = lower pitch
Pitched Percussion
Usually a set of metal or wooden bars or
plates tuned and arranged like a piano
keyboard
Bars can be struck with yarn, rubber,
plastic, or metal mallets
Metal bars sustain sound longer than
wooden ones
Colorful, distinctive sounds
Pitched Percussion
Glockenspiel
• Small steel bars with brass mallets
• Bright, penetrating sound
Xylophone
• Hardwood (or synthetic) bars with plastic
mallets
• Dry, sharp tone
Marimba
• Wooden (or synthetic) slats with yarn (or
rubber) mallets
• Tubular resonators give it a mellow sound
Pitched Percussion
Vibraphone
• Metal plates with rubber (or yarn) mallets
• Tubular resonators give it a mellow sound
• Sustain pedal and “vibrato” device
Celesta
• Bars like a glockenspiel, but played from a
small keyboard; sounds like a music box
Tubular bells (Chimes)
• Hollow hanging metal tubes struck with rolled
horsehide mallet; sound like church bells
Unpitched Percussion
Refers to any percussion instrument used
to add a specific color, not to play a
melody or bass line
Includes drums: instruments with
membranes (drumheads) stretched over
one or both ends of a hollow, cylindrical
frame
Also includes various instruments made of
solid or hollow metal or wood objects in a
variety of different shapes
Unpitched Percussion
Cymbals
• Concave metal plates come in many sizes
• One can be suspended and played with mallets
• Pairs can be clapped together: a cymbal crash
Triangle
• A rolled metal bar bent into a triangle shape
• Struck with a metal beater
Tam-tam
• A large, round, flat metal plate
• Struck with a large lambs-wool beater
Unpitched Percussion
Snare drum
• A smaller double-headed drum with a metal or
wooden frame
• Usually played with wooden snare drum sticks
(metal brushes used for special effect)
• High-tension heads give the snare drum a
sharp, dry sound
• Snares (tightly wrapped metal coils held
against the bottom head of the drum) give the
sound a sharp, metallic edge
Unpitched Percussion
Tenor drum
• A larger, double-headed drum with wooden
frame, played with snare sticks
• Lower tension and larger size gives the tenor
drum a deeper, rounder sound than the snare
drum
Bass drum
• A very large, double-headed drum with wooden
frame, played with large felt beater
• Low tension and large size give the bass drum
a deep, rumbling sound
Orchestra
Modern orchestra began to take shape in
the 1600s (Baroque era)
Basic format standardized by late 1700s
(Classical era)
Four instrument families in today’s
symphony orchestra
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Strings
Woodwinds
Brass
Percussion
Orchestra
Strings
• 30-36 violins (divided into 1st and 2nd violin
sections)
• 12 violas
• 10-12 cellos
• 8 double basses
The heart of the orchestra, they often play
continuously
Orchestra
Woodwinds
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2 flutes and piccolo
2 clarinets and bass clarinet
2 oboes and English horn
2 bassoons and contrabassoon
Used a bit less than strings, often to add
color
Orchestra
Brass
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2-3 trumpets
4 French horns
2-3 trombones and bass trombone
1 tuba
Used less then strings or woodwinds,
often to add power
Orchestra
Percussion
• 1 to 4 players
• Percussionists play whatever instruments the
score calls for, most often timpani
Used less than strings, woodwinds, or
brass, often for color or power
Orchestra
Keyboard Instruments
Sound producing mechanism controlled
from a keyboard
Anywhere from 13 to 90+ keys
Some have two or more keyboards
Performers usually sit on a bench or stool
to play traditional keyboard instruments;
often stand to play modern keyboards
Various means of producing sounds
Piano
Invented early 1700s
Keys activate hammers which strike piano
strings—a percussion instrument!
• Requires great artistry to make it “sing”
Originally called pianoforte (soft-loud)
• Player could change dynamics by pressing
keys harder or softer
Standard piano has 88 keys
Foot pedals used for special effects
• Sustain, “soft” pedal, sostenuto
Early Keyboard Instruments
Harpsichord
• May have one or more keyboards
• Keys activate quills that pluck the strings—a
plucked stringed instrument!
• Cannot change dynamics by pressing keys
harder or softer
• Many have two complete sets of strings, one
louder, one softer
• Players use “stops” or switch keyboards to
play louder or softer
• Short sustain gives it a staccato feel
Early Keyboard Instruments
Clavichord
• Keys activate “tangents” that press against
strings
• Since tangent stays in contact with string until
key is released, player can bend the pitch by
pressing harder or softer
• Since pressing harder or softer changes pitch
as well as dynamics, only subtle dynamic
changes are practical
• Delicate, subtle, expressive sound
Pipe Organ
Most have two or more keyboards and a
pedal board
Keys activate mechanism that releases air
into organ pipes—a woodwind instrument!
Each “stop” brings another set of pipes
(rank) into play…and another tone color!
Organists obtain thousands of colors (and
change dynamics) by mixing stops in
different ways
Electronic Keyboards
Wide range of instruments available
• At bottom end, 13-20 keys with a few “cheesy”
sounds
• At top end, sophisticated MIDI synthesizers
with 60-88 keys
• Keys serve as triggers that activate
electronically-generated sounds
• Many have MIDI capability, a protocol that
allows keyboard and computer to communicate
Electronic Keyboards
Some important electronic keyboards
Electronic organs
• Popular from 1930s on, used in jazz and rock
Electric piano
• Fender Rhodes popular in early jazz fusion
Electronic keyboard
• Provides pre-programmed sounds: piano,
harpsichord, organ, etc.
Synthesizer
Electronic Keyboards
Synthesizer
• Invented in the 1950s, but not commercially
viable until the 1960s
• Includes pre-programmed sounds
• Allows user to create and edit new electronic
sounds from scratch
• Standard instrument for electronic music
studios, recording studios, and so on
• Used in classical music since the 1950s
• Used in jazz and rock since the late 1960s
Plucked Strings
Player uses right hand to pluck strings
with fingers, fingernails, or “pick”
The string’s vibration is carried via the
bridge to the instrument’s body
The hollow body amplifies the sound
The left hand “stops” the string at different
frets, changing length of vibrating string
• Longer string = lower pitch
• Shorter string = higher pitch
Plucked Strings
Different “picking” patterns and styles
create different tone colors, dynamics, and
articulations
Player can play a melody on one string at a
time, or play chords on two or more
strings simultaneously
Plucked Stringed Instruments
Acoustic Guitar
• Can sound gentle and delicate or sharp and
percussive
• Six strings tuned in fourths (and a third)
• Strings made of nylon (classical guitar) or steel
(folk guitar)
• Classical guitar held across lap; player sits
• Player uses a shoulder strap to hold a folk
guitar; player can stand or sit
• Used for centuries in classical, popular, and
folk music
Plucked Stringed Instruments
Other acoustic instruments
Mandolin
• Small, pear-shaped with 4 strings & frets
Lute
• Pear-shaped with 6 to 11 strings & frets
Archlute
• Enhanced lute with extra bass strings
Theorbo
• Large bass lute with extra bass strings
Plucked Stringed Instruments
Electric guitar
• Can sound gentle and delicate or ear-splittingly
loud, searing, and virtuosic
• Usually tuned same as acoustic guitar
• Strings made of steel
• Vibrating strings picked up by transducers,
resulting electronic impulses run through
amplifiers
• Held with a shoulder strap
• Used primarily in rock and jazz