Qualitative and
Quantitative
Research
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
• Distinction based on kind of
information used.
• Both are useful in business science
depending on the question one is
interested in.
explorative
descriptive
explanatory
predictive
Qualitative
Quantitative
Qualitative Techniques
• In depth interviews
- conversational approach
• Observations
- used to generate new ideas by an
inductive process
• Interview or observe variety of people
- not only key persons but also peripheral
persons
Secondary data
• Exploration of information already
collected
• Sources include
- previous studies
- documents
Causation
• The essential element of causation is
• A “produces” B or A “forces” B to
occur
Requirements for Causation
• Covariation between A and B
If A occurs B also occurs, if A is absent B is also absent and
if there is less of A there is also less of B
• Time order
A must occur before B.
• Exclusiveness of A as cause
No other possible causes for B
Observations, and
Action Research
Advantages of the
Observational Method
• Collect the original data at the time it occurs
• Secure information that participants would
ignore because it’s so common it is not seen as
relevant
• Only method available to collect certain types
of data
• Capture the whole event as it occurs in its
natural environment
• Participants seem to accept an observational
intrusion better than they respond to
questioning
Limitations of the
Observational Method
• Observer or recording equipment must be at the
scene of the event when it takes place
• Slow process
• Expensive process
• Most reliable results are restricted to information
that can be learned by overt action or surface
indicators
• Research environment is more likely suited to
subjective assessment and recording of data than
to quantification of events
• Limited as a way to learn about the past
• Cannot observe rationale for actions, only actions
themselves
Relationship between
Observer and Participant
• Direct or indirect observation
• Observer’s presence known or
unknown to the participant
• Observer is involved or not involved
with the participant
Observation Methods
• Direct
Researcher is physically present
• Indirect
Recording of situation
• Participant
Researcher participates in situation
Guidelines for
Selecting Observers
• Ability to concentrate in a setting
full of distractions
• Ability to remember details of an
experience
• Ability to extract the most from an
observational study
Action research compared
Action Research
Other research methods
Addressses real-life problems
and is bounded by the context
Addresses real-life as well as
scientific problems, and
attempt to identify general
principles and their
contingencies
Collaborative venture of
researchers, participants and
practitioners
Clear division of roles
between researchers,
participants and practitioners
Continuous reflecting process
of research and action
Usually, clear division
between the research process
and implementation processes
Credibility – the validity of
action research is measured
on whether the actions solve
the problems and realize the
desired change
Credibility – the validity of
research is established by
statistical core figures and
successful replications
Survey
Research
Interview Problems
• Cost
• Non-response error
• Response error
• participant-initiated
• interviewer error
Personal Interview
• Requirements for success
• Availability of the needed information
from the participant
• An understanding by the participant of
his or her role
• Adequate motivation by the participant
to cooperate
Personal Interview
• To increase participant’s receptiveness
they must:
• believe the experience will be pleasant
and satisfying
• think answering the survey is an
important and worthwhile use of their
time
• have any mental reservations satisfied
Probing Styles
• A brief assertion of understanding
and interest
• An expectant pause
• Repeating the question
• Repeating the participant’s reply
• A neutral question or comment
• Question clarification
Summary: Personal Interview
Personal Interviews
People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed in person by a
trained interviewer.
Good cooperation from respondents.
Interviewer can answer questions about survey, probe for answers, use
follow-up questions, and gather information by observation.
Special visual aids and scoring devices can be used.
Illiterate and functionally illiterate respondents can be reached.
Interviewer can pre-screen respondent to ensure he/she fits the
population profile.
CAPI – computer-assisted personal interviewing: responses can be
entered into a portable microcomputer to reduce error and cost.
High costs.
Need for highly trained interviewers.
Longer period needed in the field collecting data.
May be wide geographic dispersion.
Follow-up is labour intensive.
Not all respondents are available or accessible.
Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers in their homes.
Some neighbourhoods are difficult to visit.
Questions may be altered or respondent coached by interviewers.
Telephone Interview
• Types
• Computer-assisted telephone interviewing
• Computer-administered telephone survey
• Problems
• Noncontact rate
• Refusal rate
Summary: Phone Interview
Telephone Interviews
People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed on the telephone
by a trained interviewer.
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Lower costs than personal interview.
Expanded geographic coverage without dramatic increase in costs.
Uses fewer, more highly skilled interviewers.
Reduced interviewer bias.
Fastest completion time.
Better access to hard-to-reach respondents through repeated callbacks.
Can use computerized random-digit dialling.
CATI – computer-assisted telephone interviewing: responses can be
entered directly into a computer file to reduce error and cost.
Response rate is lower than for personal interview.
Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample.
Interview length must be limited.
Many phone numbers are unlisted or not working, making directory
listings unreliable.
Some target groups are not available by phone.
Responses may be less complete.
Illustrations cannot be used.
Self-Administered Surveys
• Types
• Mail survey
• Computer-delivered
• Intercept studies
• Disadvantages
• Large nonresponse error
• Cannot obtain detailed or large amounts
of information
Concurrent Techniques to
Improve Mail Response
• Reduce Length
• Return Envelopes
• Postage
• Size and Colour
• Money
Incentives
• Deadline Dates
• Cover Letters
Summary: Self-Administered Surveys
Self-Administered Surveys
Questionnaires are:
(a) mailed, faxed or couriered to be self-administered – with return mechanism generally included
(b) computer-delivered via intranet, Internet and online services – computer stores/forwards completed
instruments automatically
c) people intercepted/studied via paper or computerized instrument in central location – without
interviewer assistance.
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Allows contact with otherwise inaccessible respondents (e.g. CEOs).
Incentives may be used to increase response rate.
Often lowest-cost option.
Expanded geographic coverage without increase in costs (a)
Requires minimal staff (a).
Perceived as more anonymous (a).
Allows respondents time to think about questions (a).
More complex instruments can be used (b).
Fast access to the computer-literate (b).
Rapid data collection (b, c).
Respondent who cannot be reached by phone (voice) may be accessible (b, c).
Sample frame lists viable locations rather than prospective respondents (b, c).
Visuals may be used (b, c).
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Low response rate in some modes.
No interviewer intervention available for probing or explanation (a).
Cannot be long or complex (a).
Accurate mailing lists needed (a).
Often respondents returning survey represent extremes of the population – skewed responses (a).
Anxiety among some respondents (b).
Directions/software instruction needed for progression through the instrument (b).
Computer security (b).
Need for low-distraction environment for survey
completion (c).
Dealing with Non-response
• Call back
- try to convince non-respondents to
participate
• Substitution
- Approach an additional respondent
for each respondent not responding
Web surveys
Web Attractions
Web Drawbacks
Short turnaround of results;
Recruiting the right sample is
results are tallied as
costly and time-consuming;
respondents complete surveys.
unlike phone and mail sample
frames, no lists exist.
Ability to use visual stimuli.
Converting surveys to the Web
can be expensive.
Ability to do numerous surveys
over time.
It takes technical as well as
research skill to field a Web
survey.
Ability to attract participants who While research is more
wouldn’t participate in another
compatible with numerous
research project, including
browsers, the technology isn’t
international respondents.
perfect.
Respondents feel anonymous.