Chapter 3- Review of Literature
Chapter-III
Review of Literature
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Destination Defined
3.3 Destination Planning
3.4 Destination Management
3.5 Destination Strategy
3.6 Destination Development
3.7 Emerging Scope and Areas of Destination Marketing
3.8 Conclusion
3.9 Reference
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3.1 Introduction
T
he primary objective of literature review of previous and current aspects is
to identify and understand the background of the research study. Review
of literature is required for the basic purpose of cataloguing information
and explaining as per the objectives of the research. it helps in entering into the deep
of the knowledge and brighten the scope for research study with certain objectives.
The existing body of knowledge helps to enlighten the problems at hand and giving
the valuable insight on how best the study can be conducted with some of the
constraints. The body of published literature serves as the theoretical and practical
foundation for learning, understanding and developing a strong and deeper
knowledge base. This literature review helps in the research design and the
implications of findings.
Destination development and strategies for tourism in Sikkim is a holistic concept and
as such the literature review is broadly divided into six categories, each one of which
is separately describing and supporting the literature concerned.
3.2 Destination Defined
According to Pearce (1992), destination is a combination of products and services
available in one location that drew visitors from beyond its spatial confines. By
implication, it was essential to recognize the destination as an entity whose
component parts are interdependent whereby a change in one brought about
ramifications for all of the others. There were different studies that analyzed the
elements that influenced the performance of the destination. Smith (1994, p. 175)
defined a tourism region as ‘a contiguous area that was explicitly delineated by a
researcher, planner or public agency as having relevance for some aspect of tourism
planning, development or analysis’. So, a destination zone was considered one type of
regionalization based on an inventory of qualitative characteristics. To define a
destination zone was a matter of specifying the characteristics a region and then
identified the areas that met those criteria (Smith, 1995).
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Kaspar (1995) and moved forward and opined that the organizational structure or
administrative framework of the destination should have similarities to the firm and
the service providers of the destination or principals were viewed as profit centers
managed within a company because they came under the helm of a local destination
management organization ( LDMO). There was increasing competition between
tourism destinations, and Smith (1995: 199) adapted the work of Gunn (1979) to
develop a list of criteria to define tourist destination zones. These were a set of
cultural, physical and social characteristics that created a sense of regional/
destination identity, adequate tourism infrastructure, a set of attractions and potential
attractions, potentiality to support tourism planning agency and accessibility. Hu and
Ritchie (1993) conceptualized the term destination as “a package of tourism facilities
and services, which like any other consumer product, is composed of a number of
multi-dimensional attributes”. Davidson and Mailtland (1997) outlined the
characteristics of a tourist destination in the context of a single district, town, city or
clearly defined and contained coastal, rural or mountain area as having a total tourist
product based on a variety of resources, other economic activities either in conflict or
complementary to tourism, a host community, public authorities responsible for
planning the re- sources and a active private sector. Bieger (1998) claimed it to be the
tourist product itself that in certain markets competes with other products. Buhalis et.
el. (2000) defined the term destination as an amalgamation of tourism products
offering an integrated experience to consumers. Leiper, et.al., (2000) studied the
tourism destinations from the demand perspective and identifying it as a set of
products, services, natural and artificial attractions able to draw tourists to a specific
place, where the geographical location is simply one of the factors in tourism system.
Some studies specifically examined categories within the supply system while other
still highlight the critical role played by the actors that manage tourism destinations
(Kerr, Barron, Wood, 2001). The realization here, led to studies which analyzed the
subject of destination performance in terms of “the locality as a whole” (Lundtorp &
Wanhill, 2001; Kozak, 2002), while other studies specifically examined categories
within the supply system, such as small businesses in the case of Tinsley and Lynch
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(2001). Remaining other authors with a unified school of thoughts, still highlighted
the critical roles and responsibilities played by the actors that managed tourism
destinations (Kerr, Barron, & Wood, 2001). According to Franch and Martini ( 2002,
p.5) destination management should be the strategic, organizational and operative
decisions
taken
to
manage
the
process
of
definition,
promotion
and
commercialization of the tourism product [originating from within the destination], to
generate manageable flows of incoming tourists that are balanced, sustainable and
sufficient to meet the economic needs of the local actors involved in the destination.
Howie (2003) proceeded by saying that destinations present complex challenges for
management and development in that they served a broad range of the tourists’ needs
and the tourism-related businesses as well as the local community, local businesses,
and industries. Howie (2003) further proceeded with the view that destination
management plays a key role in addressing the many and sometimes conflicting
issues that arise in contemporary tourism and ensures its managerial implications with
a different type of direction, control, planning and coordination. So the meaning of
destination presented complex challenges for management and development in that
those places essentially served a range of needs of tourists and tourism-related
businesses as well as the resident community, local businesses and industries.
So, it was important to clarify and emphasize the important distinctions that existed
between destination policy, planning and development (DPPD), destination
management organization (DMO), and destination audit (DA). Although modern
authors of tourism management sought to improve the competitiveness and
sustainability of the destination, they differ fundamentally in that DPPD is essentially
an intellectual process that uses information and judgment to make macro-level
decisions regarding the kind of destination that stakeholders want. In the awareness
that the potential competitiveness of a destination is influenced or limited by the
relationships between these three forces, it is a trend to focus on the main “functions”
that the last two forces – DMO and DA - play on the development of the destination.
While the above definitions suggested the key word destination to be defined more
broadly than one physical location, some definitions of destinations were artificially
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Chapter 3- Review of Literature
determined by political jurisdictions, which failed to take into consideration consumer
preferences or tourism industry functions. A more holistic conceptualization of
destination comprised all these various viewpoints in the definition of destination.
Under this conceptualization, a destination coincided with the notion of a locality
seen as a set of products/experiences/imagery, influenced in a critical way by the role
of companies’ attitudes and their willingness to co-operate. By implication, scholars
recognized that the destination was an entity whose component parts were
interdependent whereby a change in one brought about ramifications for all of the
others. Given those holistic definition, there was clearly a management issue in terms
of planning and coordinating actions among the individual entities. Ansoff (1968)
further stated that flexible strategic planning is essential to future development while
others viewed it as an oxymoron. Strategic planning calls for greater flexibility and in
future strategic planning and tactical planning should be bifurcated to an increasing
extent to uphold the efficiencies of top management owing to the intensifying
complexity and uncertainty confronting the organizations. In other words, strategy
represents a vision for future tourism development, defines the target markets,
business goals and development priorities. According to him, strategy also exhibited
action plan considering time and funding constraints, training and marketing action
plan considering time and funding constraints, training and marketing actions and
changes in organization structure.
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3.3 Destination Planning
3.3.1 Destination Planning
In their book “The Tourism System: An Introductory Text”, Mill R.C., & Morrison
A.M. ( 1986) described
that tourism planning process were designed to produce
goals, strategies, and objectives for the destination area related to tourism
development marketing, industry organization, and awareness, and to other support
services and activities while tourism development plan normally provided overall
guidelines for development, outlines broad development concepts, and identified
individual development opportunities worthy of in-depth analysis ( through feasibility
studies and/ or cost-benefit analyses). According to their opinion, while moving with
tourism development the destination area would first find it necessary to establish
overall development guidelines to ensure that when development occurred it
complied with the area’s economic, environmental, social and cultural policies and
goals. They also explained that the destination, going for development were needed to
draft more specific guidelines describing the basic characteristics of development that
it wishes to encourage. According to their interpretations of strategy and models for
strategy formulation in tourism most of those were prescriptive and there was a need
for further empirical research about patterns and processes that accompany tourism
strategies other than planning (Mintzberg 1994).
3.3.2 Destination Policy
The Tourism Policy 1997 exhibited a belief that the potential of the tourism would be
determined by the income levels of inhabitants and was basically a leisure industry
not requiring the attention of the planners and administrators. According to this
Policy, the belief was based on an information gap that systematically constrained the
development of tourism in India over the years. National Action Plan for Tourism
which was presented in the Parliament on 5th May 1992 proposed to achieve different
types of tourism products, continual growth of tourism infrastructure, effective
marketing and promotional efforts in the overseas markets and removal of all
impediments of tourism. The Action Plan could not specify the infrastructural
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requirements and the investments needed to meet the targets and the sources of
funding for the same. The Tourism Synergy Program consisting the activities and
infrastructural components to be provided by the various agencies including the
private sector and State Governments was thus prepared in 1993. It was further
modified and converted into a ‘National Strategy for the Development of Tourism’
during 1996. These documents were evident for realizing the importance of tourism
and ensuring a consensus on the developmental needs. It also contributed positively
to all the infrastructural departments in a coordinated manner and ensured higher plan
allocation and introduction of new innovative schemes for accelerated development
and growth of tourism.
3.3.3 Destination Planning
In their article ‘‘Wildlife Tourism: A Strategic Destination Analysis’’ Higginbottom
K. and Scott N. (2004), advocated the strategic planning and management of tourism
that involves formulating, implementing and evaluating cross functional decisions
and thereby enabling organizations to achieve their objectives. Considering his
opinion, strategic planning and management of tourism was integrative across
different parts of an organization/ destination and involved the development of a long
term vision as to what was to be achieved by these integrated planning, operations
and resulting decisions. Actually, developing a coordinated, integrated and synergistic
approach was required in strategic planning for diverse perspectives, joint issues and
sustainable orientation. They also proceeded with the view that destination strategic
planning was not only logical as to support the philosophy of tourism development,
but also necessary for destination planning in order to respond to increasing
competition between tourism destinations around the world. They found that the types
of tourism such as cultural tourism, major events tourism and nature-based or wildlife
tourism were increasingly used by planners or developers to create or enhance the
competitiveness of destinations.
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3.4 Destination Management
3.4.1 Destination Management:
In their article, “Environmental Economics of the Khangchendzonga National Park in
the Sikkim Himalaya, India”, Maharana, I, Rai S.C., Sharma, E.( 2000, September),
explained the application and relevance of Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) to
measure Willing to Pay (WTP) important part of Polluter Pays Principles (PPP).
Using a random survey, the average WTP was 8.84 USD for foreign visitors per visit,
followed by 6.20 USD per household per year and 1.91 USD per domestic visitor.
The WTP was strongly influenced by age, education and income.
3.4.2 Destination Management
Simption, K. (2001) strongly recommended with some authors (e.g. Middleton &
Hawkins, 1998) that development of tourism in harmony with the social, cultural, and
physical environment of a destination can offer industry practitioners a substantial
competitive advantage, as tourism industry attention to the maintenance of a pristine
ecology and harmonious relations with the host community are clearly desirable from
a purely self-serving point of view. Simption, K (2001) has also said that the concept
of strategic planning is a cornerstone of conventional management theory, and has
been discussed at length in the management literature .Described as ‘a comprehensive
plan of action that sets a critical direction, and guides the allocation of resources to
achieve long-term objectives. According to the author, strategic planning embodied
with many advantages which are coincident with previously identified criteria for
sustainability – it implies a long-term perspective, requires consideration of multiple
situational influences, is clearly goal oriented, and can accommodate a wide range of
conflicting perspectives.
3.4.3 Destination Management
The article ‘‘The Effectiveness of Environmental Interpretation at Resource Sensitive
Tourism Destinations’’ was written by Kuo, I-L. (2002) mentioned that the
development and implementation of tourism legislation with respect to the visitor
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activity could contribute to the ultimate destination experience. Environmental
interpretation in a resource sensitive tourism destination was considered to be an
effective visitor management strategy that helped to encourage visitors to adopt more
appropriate behavior in order to sustain the development of tourism. Through this
paper, he aimed to examine the processes and purposes of visitor management and
environmental interpretation, including various definitions and functions. The
effectiveness of environmental factors in visitor management with a sustainable
orientation was also addressed in this paper.
3.4.4 Destination Management
The article, “Contention and contractions of tourism as development option: the case
of Kerala, India”, written by Sreekumar T.T. and Parayil G. stated that the
government of Kerala responded to the potentiality of tourism development with a
diffused strategy of looking for new avenues of income and employment generation
but tourism remains a rather inconsequential segment even today. They also
advocated the green accounting for resource analysis and the use of satellite accounts
which will reveal tourism as a composite product spanning different sectors.
3.4.5 Destination Management
According to Müristaja H (2003) the best destination development plans were worked
out in cooperation with private, public and non-profit sector. Following the opinion of
the author, one could win through cooperation and improvement and not through
inner competition and division (Godfrey, Clarke 2000). Organizing and coordinating
were the activities with the key meaning of development. An ideal variant would be
if someone took the whole responsibility for tourism development, but still a
better solution would be formation of a holding enterprise that would represent and
coordinate different local groups.
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3.4.6 Destination Management
Cambridge Tourism Strategy (2001-2006) exhibited that the strategy for a region
generally revolved around five key principles. These were partnership, quality,
sustainability, competitiveness, and accessibility. It exuberated that a strategy
document usually addressed broad themes (again, in contrast to a plan which was
more concerned with specifics) like the framework within which tourism could
flourish, development of the spreading quality and encouragement of the wise growth
of tourism. It also enunciated that tourism strategy created and evolved more
strategies e.g. Country Cultural Strategy, Community Strategy etc.
3.4.7 Destination Management
In their article, ‘‘Environmental Auditing : An Approach Towards Monitoring the
Environmental Impacts in Tourism Destinations, With Reference to the Case of
Molyvos’’, Diamentis D. and Westlake J.(1997) explained how environmental
auditing contributed to the development and maintenance of a destination and
forming the basis for an ongoing environmental management activity that was
following sustainable tourism practices of a destination. They recommended a
sustainable basis of tourism needs that was associated with the synthesis of three
values which are the values of existence of a resource, the option value (i.e. the
choice of considering the preserved area in the future) and the quest value ( i.e. the
satisfaction which derives from the minimum resource usage in the light of the
benefits of future generations. Here, the Environmental Auditing described the
environmental elements and assessed the destination’s components, provided major
outcomes, green policies, and environmental quality system. Also, this approach
considered the whole environment pressurizing the private sector to exercise auditing
and green approaches.
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3.4.8 Destination Management:
Another article, “Assessment of Natural Resources Use Pattern: A Case Study along a
Trekking Corridor of Sikkim”, authored by Chettri, N., & Sharma, E.( 2006, March)
claimed that the subsistence in the Himalaya were largely dependent upon resources
derived from natural forests due to the free and easy access to those resources and
simplicity in their use. Sikkim was distinct to have the 43% of its total geographical
area under forest cover, of which 34% is under dense forests. The burgeoning human
population and family fragmentations were exerting a tremendous pressure on the
natural resources to meet the requires of food, fuel, fodder, timber, and other human
needs. In recent years, tourism had increased manifolds in Sikkim, which caused one
of the major factors behind destruction of forests. Irrational use of natural resources
resulted in the lowering of forest quality and shortage of resources. As a result, people
started using less-valued species as firewood and fodder. This study dealt with bioresources use pattern by the community and tourism enterprises along a trekking
corridor in the Sikkim Himalaya, with special reference to firewood, fodder, and
timber.
3.5 Destination Strategy
3.5.1 Destination Strategy
According to Diamond (1977, April), destination strategies can be of four types.
These were - turn around strategy, sustainable growth strategy, incremental growth
strategy and selective tourism strategy. Turn around strategic approach was resource
intensive, demanding a public sector lead and backing from both the industry and
residential population. Sustainable growth strategy was less dramatic than turn around
strategy and relied on gradual replenishment of declining markets by seeking out new
areas of market potential. However, the original market, though reducing was still
nurtured and maintained. This was more of a marketing-led approach with lower
levels of investment. Incremental growth strategy on the other hand sought a new
market and product development was phased over a number of years through test
marketing and development projects. Selective tourism strategy relied upon accurate
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indication of new growth markets. According to him the most appropriate strategy for
each resort/destination was dependent on a variety of factors. These were- estimating
market, stage in the product life cycle, competitive position of the resort, political and
community support, attitude of the tourism industry, available investment and public
funds.
3.5.2 Destination Strategy
According to Porter (1980), tourism strategy took the three forms. These were-(i)
lower costs where production efficiency led to value added to both consumer and
producer matching market prices with greater profitability or being able to offer lower
prices while maintaining average profits. (ii) Differentiation, where additional value
was created for the consumers through adding value that allowed a greater price to be
commended e.g. branding, product features or additional benefits or support. (iii)
Focus, relating to the breath of market, scope, focuses referring to targeting specific
niche markets or product ranges. Porter also opined that the essence of strategy
formulation was coping with competition where competition in an industry is rooted
in its underlying and competitive forces.
Porter (1980) also brought to light the competitive strategy of an organization(
destination) that was dependent on a detailed understanding of the nature and strength
of each of the five forces ( threats of new competitors; threat of substitute products;
the power of buyers: power of suppliers; rivalry among business houses in the
industry. According to Porter (1985), competitive advantage raised from selection of
the generic strategy which best fitted the organization’s competitive environment and
then organizing value adding activities to support the chosen strategy. There were
three main alternatives, which were (i) differentiation:- creating a customer
perception that product is superior to those of competitors so that premium price can
be charged. (ii) cost leadership:- being the lowest cost producer of a product so that
above average profits are earned even though the price charged is not above average.
(iii) focus:- utilizing either a differentiation or cost leadership strategy in a narrow
profile of market segment(s). Porter (1986a, 1990) argued that global competitive
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advantage was dependent upon two sets of decisions, these were- (i) configuration of
value adding activities: managers were the authority to decide in which nations they
would carry out each of the activities in the value chain of their business.
Configuration could be broad (involving many countries) or narrow (one or few
countries). (ii) coordination of value adding activities- managers must decide the most
effective way of coordinating value adding activities, which were carried out in
different parts of the world. For Porter, the ‘purest global strategy’ was when an
organization concentrated key activities in locations offering competitive advantages
and coordinated activities on a global basis. According to him, ‘organizations should
move towards purest global strategy in the long run.
3.5.3 Destination Strategy
Yip (1992) argued that successful global strategy even for tourism were based upon a
comprehensive analysis of globalization drivers as these were the means of industry
and market analysis to formulate the global strategy. Yip identified three stages in
developing a total global strategy. These were- (i) Developing a core strategy:- it
involved building core competences and generic or hybrid strategies which could
potentially give global competitive advantage. (ii) Internationalizing the core
strategy:- it included the choice of which markets the business would enter and the
means by which the organization would enter them. In this stage the core
competences and generic strategy were introduced to international markets and when
the organization began to locate its value adding activities in locations where
competitive advantages like low cost access to resources are available. (iii)
Globalizing the international strategy:- this stage was based upon coordinating and
integrating the core competences and strategy on a global basis. It would also include
deciding which elements of the strategy to be standardized and which were to be
locally accepted on the basis of the strength of the globalization drivers in the
industry and market.
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3.5.4 Strategic Planning Approach for Destination Development:
In his book “Tourism: How effective management makes the difference”, Doswell, R.
gave a framework for tourism strategy. This framework deals with the tourism
development policies, region’s macroeconomic perspectives with respect to the
contribution of tourism industry, contexts in which tourism growth and development
are expected, characteristics of demand and supply, marketing opportunities in
various segments, tourism development areas as administrative units, infrastructural
situations, description of the needed product development, indication of the expected
volume of tourists and receipts, regulatory framework, human resource development
program and public awareness program.
3.5.5 Strategic Planning Approach for Destination Development
Faulkner (1994) viewed an integrated plan of action with goals and objectives
focused on those actions and systems which monitored progress the strategy process
for corporate, strategic and marketing planning has also been said to consist of a
series of steps , these being formulation, implementation and evaluation (Varadarajan
& Jayachandran 1999)’. Cespedes (1991) argued that tourism strategy was accepted
to be interactive in nature.
3.5.6 Strategic Planning Approach for Destination Development:
Veal A. J.( 2002), described the terms strategic planning and strategic management
in tourism as an approach to planning and management that sought to ensure that
medium- to long-term goals were given prominence, and day-to-day management
was harnessed to the achievement of such goals rather than being distracted by ad
hoc, short-term objectives. This approach had its origins in the private sector but,
since the 1960s, public bodies increasingly felt the requirement to behave much like
private corporations, preparing strategic plans, which were rolled forward annually
and which integrated forward planning with budgeting, implementation strategies and
performance appraisal. The terms strategic planning and strategic management were
used interchangeably by some, but strategic planning was considered here as the
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initial process of preparing a direction and broad program of activity for the
organization or development corporations while strategic management, on the other
hand, was seen as those aspects of management which were concerned with ensuring
that the strategic plan was implemented and that the organization did not lose sight of
its strategic directions because of day-to-day activities. Veal A.J.(2002), introduced a
strategic planning process with chronological six steps viz. terms of reference,
environmental appraisal, mission/goals, development of options, evaluation of such
options and decide strategies.
3.5.7 Strategic Planning Approach for Destination Development:
In his book “Travel and Tourism Management” Singh S.P.(2006) discussed various
aspects of strategic managements keeping in view the present challenges and stiff
competition as managers needed to learn and implement these strategies successfully.
The present
book discussed various strategies like competitive, generic, cost
leadership differentiation, focus, stability, retrenchment, total global, global generic,
core competence, development, evaluation, implementation and globalization. In this
endeavor, the book elucidated on many important topics like strategic direction,
mergers, acquisitions, joint development, strategic alliances, diversification and
globalization along with trends of strategic management.
3.5.8 Strategic Planning Approach for Destination Development:
Sikkim Strategic Plan (May, 2008), jointly prepared by the Government of Sikkim
and Building & Construction Authority (BCA) of Singapore, incorporated urban
planning master plan, master consult services, existing tourism facilities and services.
The commission, held responsible for the plan, also reviewed the visitor arrival
numbers and mixes, changing preferences, demand and supply of hotel rooms,
categories of hotels, range of facilities and services in such hotels. In doing so, the
major hindrance of the in-depth study was found to be the scarcity of data and other
relevant information. Though the report recognized the tremendous growth rate in
terms of arrivals and earnings, yet the same were found to be under-performing. The
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report also indicated that no Asian country was found to be keenly interested in
Sikkim except Japan. Due to the scarcity of data related to space, facilities, roomnights etc. the commission did not get sufficient information to assess hotel sector in
the State.
3.6 Destination Development
3.6.1 Destination Development:
In his article “ A review of development planning in Guatemala” Hoy, D.R.( 1970)
described how the development activities had been occurring by dividing the entire
issues into three phases and by considering the control aspects of the various
governments, rate of development, and constraints involved therein. According to
him, the positive approach to development were expected to continue but effective
development planning were dependent on political stability, internal government
organizational reforms, such as institution of a civil service system, consolidation of
some planning offices, and the coordination of development plans to budgetary
policies.
3.6.2 Destination Development:
Based on his study of hotel operation in the Caribbean region Lundberg (1972)
developed six stages of tourism development and highlighted the interrelationship
that existed between tourist development, and changing attitudes of all stakeholders
making decisions, and the host community. Cyclically, the phases of tourism
development were high expectations, short run success, reality, recession deeper
difficulty and reflection.
3.6.3 Destination Development:
Miossec (1977) theorized that the development process took an evolutionary form
(although not using that term) and depicted the development of infrastructure and
facilities in destination areas, including the coalescing of canters and the expansion of
transportation networks. Lundgren (1973, 1983) evolved similar ideas exhibiting the
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patterns of tourist development in the Laurentian area of Canada and elsewhere,
although his emphasis was squarely on the transportation element. An evolutionary
approach was also implicit in Lundgren’s models and theories, where each spatial
expansion of development is based on the infrastructure and facilities existing at the
time, which are in turn superseded, and become either redundant or converted.
3.6.4 Destination Development:
According to Pearce (1989), tourism development was an expression that
encompassed not only destinations, origins, motivations and impacts, but also the
complex linkages that existed between all the people and institutions of that
interlocking, global supply and demand system. He also noted that tourism
development was a hybrid term, that researched in the field consisting of two
essentially separate literatures and that there were few examples of good research that
managed to combine the two domains successfully. According to him, some other
authors like Butler (1997, p.121) claimed that the process of development of tourist
destinations received little attention in the literature, and conceptualization of the
process was very limited. There were a large number of case studies of the pattern of
development of destinations, but they were based on a shallow theoretical foundation.
3.6.5 Destination Development
Hettne (1995) divided the destination development theory into development ideology
(the ends) and development strategy (the means). Development strategy is the means
of implementing the development process guided by a specific ideology. Sachs (1996,
p.1) opined ‘development stands like a ruin in the intellectual landscape as problems
such as global poverty still exists’. If, however, tourism was to be an agent of
development, it was important to understand the theoretical concepts behind the term
development and what the ideology was behind the strategy driving tourism
development. The nature of development, the nature of the tourism industry, the
nature of tourists and the nature of the destination were four broader aspects of
tourism development on which destination strategies were based.
However, the
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appropriateness of tourism development was considered within the parameters of
socioeconomic, geographic and political considerations in the destination.
3.6.6 Destination Development:
The article ‘Development of Tourism in Goa’ written by Kamath U.D. ( 1996)
explained all round development approaches for Goa in which he evaluated attraction
features, seasonality, tourist arrivals, diversification of markets, infrastructure (mainly
transportation and accommodation), basic amenities and all the sincere efforts made
by the government and other government owned authorities.
3.6.7 Destination Development
Battacharyya B. (1996, 57-66) in his article “Tourism in the Himalaya in the context
of Darjeeling and Sikkim”, explained how the discovery and development of urbancentric tourism resulted in a congestion and degradation in the quality of the natural
environment. So, he recommended decentralized tourism development and
introduction of types and forms of tourism keeping in view the sustainable use of its
natural and cultural resources. Effective land use planning, diversification of tourist
traffic, choice of types and forms of tourism and above all a trend to sustainable
practice was recommended.
3.6.8 Destination Development
In his book “Handbook of Effective Travel and Tourism” Sethi P. (1999) explained
that tourism development was considered to be a dynamic, continuous and ever
changing process with an emphasis on a balance between the development
opportunities and industrial capabilities, both of which were determined by the
external and internal environment respectively. He recommended a detailed
environmental study and consideration of significant environmental changes by the
policy makers and the need for adoption of a proactive approach in environmental
monitoring and management. In his book, Sethi exposed numerous factors affecting
the development of the tourism industry and numerous complex interactions between
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them. He advocated important issues in a systematic way and with a holistic
perspective. He emphasized on a system approach with the resolution of any complex
system into a number of simpler components and the identification of important
linkages between them.
3.6.9 Destination Development
In his book, Encyclopedia of Tourism Jafari, J. (2000, p.145) dealt with the
development of tourism into three main eras. Era of craftsmanship- characterized by
spontaneous development and by scarce skills and technological applications. Era of
Fordism-- characterized by search for profit through standardization and mass
production. New Tourism Era- primarily characterized by segmentation of demand,
flexibility of supply and diagonal integration. Jafari J. also explained how Tourism
product and tourist destination were confusing and contradictory. From the
perspective of the tourists, the term destination was simply a geographical unit within
which a number of differing products could be purchased and experienced whereas
the destination organization’s perspective was all inclusive in that it planed,
developed, promoted, the entire state/ destination region.
3.6.10 Destination Development:
Russo (2000) addressed the concept of “vicious circle” of tourism development to
describe the self-feeding linkage between the emergence of a class of excursionists
among the visitors in the later stages of the tourism destination life-cycle and the
decline in the attractiveness of the city. According to this scheme, effective policies
for sustainable tourism attacked the critical points where the vicious circle fed. He
suggested to draw the adequate attention to maintain the quality and accessibility of
the primary and complementary tourism products.
3.6.11 Destination Development:
Being a proactive and future oriented thinker, Dann (2002) elucidated that destination
development process considered acknowledgement of final restrictions (instead of
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continuous expansion and product promotion), growth of environmental awareness,
increase of capital expenses ( competition between competing sectors education and
health), rapid development of technology, continuation of globalization process (
growing need of being pro-active);
growth of tension in tourism development
between a centre and periphery, continuation of diversification of tourism demand
(concurrent with the change of life-style).
3.6.12 Destination Development
According to Krippendorf J. (1999), development and progress of tourism should be
measured in terms of higher incomes, more satisfying jobs, social and cultural
facilities, better housing etc. and the aims should not be just a higher gross national
incomes and products but more gross national happiness’. He remarked, ‘though the
glorifications of statistical records are still widespread in tourism policy, yet it does
not mean a priori success in revitalizing the economy and
greater prosperity’. So,
development policies therefore considered economic and socio-cultural benefits to the
host community, farming and forestry, handicrafts, small scale industry and a nontourist service were decided to be promoted and was given the same priority as tourist
development. The measures for development included a gradual cut-down of tourism
oriented construction industry and the redundant work force employed in the hotel
industry ; a combination of compatible trades and its promotion; an encouragement
activities protecting environment and ecology ; purchase of agricultural land by local
authorities and sell it to young farmers; generous compensation paid to farmers; use
of locally available produces ; transformation of non tourist services in the public and
private sectors from towns to their outskirts.
3.6.13 Destination Development
In his book “Aspect of Tourism Development”, Dixit, S.K. (2005) deeply engrossed
into the various aspects of development and strategic implications. In his book he
discussed the development of tourism with twelve chapters. He emphasized on the
macro-micro environmental analysis, SWOT Analysis, Strategic directions and
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methods of development, global strategies, present and future management trends and
implications of sustainability. According to him, the development strategies would be
useful to tour operator, manager, hotelier, developer, and planner.
3.6.14 Destination Development
In his article, “Modeling Tourism Development: Evolution, growth and decline”,
Butler R.( 2006)
emphasized
that description and explanation of development
process is more important than the forecasting of tourist numbers and a typical
tendency leading to a marketing orientation and predictive planning. Here evolution
of destinations implied an organic change over time, generally but not exclusively in
one direction, incorporating existing development, rather than a revolutionary pattern
of development whereby previous developments were removed or drastically changed
very suddenly. One of the earliest revolutionary approaches was that tourist
destinations evolved from discovery to popularity to decline (Christaller). According
to the author, a much more influential paper was introduced by Plog (1974) though it
was criticized for being over simplified and based on limited research and deductions.
Plog (1974) placed various destinations on a spectrum of types of tourists, suggesting
that the market for destinations would change over time, both in terms of the types of
tourists and in terms of potential numbers of visitors.
3.6.15 Destination Development:
In her article ‘‘Managing Tourism Destinations’’, Sigala (2008) discussed the
determinants of travel choice, tourism planning and policy making, development
stages and factors affecting the evolution of destination, and impacts on society and
the environment. Here, the first issue the determinants of travel choice included
traveler characteristics, the market, sources of travel information and the destinations.
The second issue planning and policy making included a partnership and
collaboration mechanism for policy decision making, strategic planning and
implementation, quality and human resource management, crisis and disaster
management, tourism satellite accounts and technology. The third issue development
and evolution was a more concrete section, dealing with the development stages and
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factors responsible therein. The forth issue impacts on society and the environment
dealt with the socio-economic and environmental impacts of tourism.
3.6.16 Destination Development:
The book, “Tourism Development Revisited: Concepts, Issues and Paradigms”,
edited by S. Babu, S, Mishra, S., Parida, B. B. (2008), exuberated a strong tourism
development literature considering development patterns and its interrelationship. S.
Babu S examined the continuous issues of disciplinary and industrial nature of
tourism with the view of researches choosing to come out of research funding trap to
consider critically engaged and reflexive enquiries. According to Miguela Mena,
tourism is already a recognized component of many developing economics but its
contribution largely depends on the initiatives to be taken for its development. The
strategy must include enlisting local participation, involving both control over
tourism and a fair share in the benefits of tourism. Lingyun Zhang and Xiaoiu Ma
examined tourism development (in China) from the perspective of new institution
economics to complement the travel trade that is experiencing tremendous changes.
After analyzing the operational structure and functioning of the tourism industry, they
argued that most integration exercises in China have failed due to the problems of
high guarantee fee, non-structured products, high entry barriers, high transaction and
suck cost, thereby limiting the capital flow and integration in the industry.
Mukhopadhayay D. traverses through a less traveled path in the subject of tourism by
establishing the relationship between tourism and economic development with
empirical studies and in Indian perspective.
3.6.17 Destination Development:
In his book “ Atithi Devo Bhavah (Guest Mananagement)”, Singh R.K. (2009) said
that the broad objectives of future tourism development in India would be oriented to
an accorded status in the national agenda for action and its eco-friendly sustainable
development. The target of tourist arrivals to/in India revolved around its importance
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of creating awareness and people’s participation, improving the quality of services,
identifying the needs for a new thrust in image building, improving organizational
capabilities and looking for other areas of resource generation. Besides, making
travel a pleasurable experience, basic cleaning and hygiene facilities, care for heritage
properties, uniform standard for all facilities and services and setting a common
platform for all parties involved in the industry would certainly bring about a new
orientation for tourism development in India.
3.6.18 Destination Development
In their article, “Potential Tourist Destination Development in the Istrian
Countryside”, Vodeb K., & Rudež H.N. (2010) explored how the modern
comprehension of tourist behavior shown an urgent need to create a tourist
destination as a system. They emphasized on the supply side aspects of tourism and
its proper integration and coordination. The paper analyzed tourists’ attitudes in an
area appropriate for rural tourism towards sustainable tourist supply. An empirical
research was carried among the sample of 538 tourists in the tourist destinations. The
distinct characteristics and preferences were found and an immediate advocacy
oriented to marketing efforts was made to attract target markets of tourists.
3.6.19 Destination Development
In the article “Impact of firewood extraction on tree structure, regeneration and
woody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of the Sikkim Himalaya” written
by Chettri, N., Sharma E., & Deb D.C., & Sundriyal R.C. ( 2002, May) explained
how tourism in Sikkim was a rapidly growing industry and recorded a roughly 10
fold increase in visitors during the past 2 decades. The authors mentioned in their
article that how the phenomenon resulted in encroachment on the forest for firewood
(Rai and Sundriyal 1997; Chettri 2000). They mentioned that although the
Government regulation in Sikkim forbade the use of firewood in remote trekking
areas yet the trekking support staff and travel agents were still continuing the use of
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firewood in remote trekking areas resulting in various environmental degradation
including deforestation, landslides, avalanche etc.
3.6.20 Accessibility to Destination
In the article “Interest based formulation of tourism policy for environmentally
sensitive destinations,” Ritchi J.R.B. (1999) discussed about the introduction of the
long distance aircrafts after the 2nd World War helped many destinations to achieve
success. Most of these destinations achieved success not by dint of their strategy and
management but was a matter of luck and chance. In effect, market affluence and lack
of competition combined with minimal concern for environmental protection, allowed
many well-endowed destinations the luxury of ignoring the need for professional
management of their tourism resources. Recently, found realities facing the tourism
sector had been changing radically.
3.6.21 Accessibility to Destination
In their article “Modeling Tourist Movements: A Local Destination Analysis”, Lew
A. & Mckercher B.(2006) explained that understanding the intra destination
movement of tourists contributed to the practical application for destination
management, product development and attraction marketing. Modeling tourist
movement within a destination was based upon urban transport modeling and tourist
behavior. Factors identified included a set of destination pattern characteristics and a
set of movement patterns in two ways, resulting in four types of territorial and three
linear path models.
3.6.22 Destination Competitiveness
Dwyer L and Kim C (2003) brought about three major views with regard to the
notion of destination competitiveness. These were: (a) Comparative advantage and/or
price competitiveness perspective. (b) A strategy and management perspective (c) A
historical and socio-cultural perspective. Economists placed emphasis on price and
the country-specific economic characteristics of competitiveness, the management
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and strategy researchers focused on the firm-specific characteristics, while the focus
of sociologists and political theorists has been on various social, political and cultural
characteristics underlying the notion of competitiveness. But all groups suggested
different indicators to measure competitiveness.
3.6.23 Destinations Competitiveness
In the conference proceedings, ‘‘Destinations Competitiveness in Modern Tourism’’,
Vlahovic S. (2010) sought tourism strategies balancing and coordinating with broader
economic, socio-cultural and environmental objectives, and typically oriented to the
destination itself and the participation and consultation of various stakeholders. This
paper had four objectives: to develop a model of destination competitiveness that
identifies key success factors in determining destination competitiveness; to develop
an appropriate set of indicators of destination competitiveness; to highlight the
advantages and limitations of the model; and to identify areas for further conceptual
and empirical research. The development of a model of destination competitiveness
and an associated set of indicators allowed identification of the relative strengths and
weaknesses of different tourism destinations, and could be used by industry and
governments to increase tourism numbers and expenditure, and enhance
socioeconomic prosperity. Furthermore, it aimed towards indicating key roles and
factors that would help destinations minimize weaknesses and threats and maximize
opportunities and strengths in order to implement their development strategies more
effective.
3.6.24 Destination Competitiveness
In their article, “Strategic Success in winter sports destinations: a sustainable value
creation perspective” Flagestad A., & Hope C.A. (2001), emphasized on the
management of environmentally sensitive mountainous areas and villages. They
opined that the survival and development of winter sports destinations are to a large
extent centered around strategies for creating competitive advantage and at the same
time meeting the criteria of sustainable tourism laid down by the UNWTO and
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thereby combining these two concepts to get strategic performance. Here they tried to
build the model to get the most suitable organizational structure of winter sports
destinations which will lead to superior performance in terms of strategic success.
3.6.25 Destination Development and Role of Government:
The article ‘‘The Impact of Environmental Policy on the Tourism Industry in
Taiwan’’ , written by Lin Y. and Hemmington N.(1993), investigated the influence of
government environmental policy on the tourism industry through in-depth interview
and addressed the controversy over government attitude towards tourism
development, the role of tourism in the lives of the local people, the mutual
agreement that there was
no conflict between development of tourism and
environmental protection and more specifically pollution issues. They also addressed
the result of implementation of the environmental policy in the hotel sector by
considering different factors such as pollution control legislation, choice of location,
investment opportunities and fiscal control, size and ownership, market and
competitive environment.
3.6.26 Destination Development and Role of Government:
In his book, “The Beautiful India” (Sikkim) Rahman S.A (2006) stated that during
10th Economic Plan period the Government of Sikkim laid emphasis on the
promotion and development of various small scale industries and tourism. The
industrial policy of the State, which was extended in the year 2003, provided special
package for development of industries in the state on the line of North-East industries
policy. This policy also entailed granting of financial concessions to 12 identified
thrust areas in industries of where they are located in the state.
3.6.27 Destination Development through Community Participation
In the article “Tourism Planning, People and the Environment in Western Australia”
Dowling R.K.( 1993) discussed about a survey of 109 residents and 218 tourists of
Shark Bay, Western Australia in 1990 to 1991 to determine their attitudes to tourism
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and the environment. The results indicated that the residents placed more emphasis on
tourism development while the tourists gave greater weight to environmental
protection. Both groups indicated a preference for small-scale developments and
believe that tourism was needed to be integrated with the overall conservation and
land management of the region. A number of recreational and touristic activities
which were perceived to be environmentally harmful were noted, as well as others
which were viewed as being environmentally compatible and, therefore, acceptable.
The findings had direct management applications as the region was undergoing a
tourism boom and was proclaimed the first World Heritage Area in the state.
3.6.28 Destination Development through Community Participation:
In his book, ‘‘Tourism: A Community Approach’’, Murphy P. E. (2002) focused on
tourism in the industrial areas, with an investigating perspective based upon the
destination community. It was because industrial nations from the major touristgenerating and receiving areas, with domestic tourism outstripping international
travel by a four to one margin. In an area of uncertainty and individual restraint such
a margin were magnified as people holiday closer to home. Destinations committed
themselves in tourism, or planning to embrace this activity, were logical bases from
which to assess the industry. They represented the industry’s shop floor, where visitor
and host meet, where impacts are felt most keenly, and where the hope of corporate
and government planning was expected to lie. Murphy, P.E. (2002, p.160) also
discussed that a master plan is a comprehensive detailing of guidelines for
development. It was
the outcome of (i) defined goals and objectives, (ii) the
collection and analysis of market and resource data, (iii) the development of strategy
alternatives, and (iv) the political decision making process.
3.6.29 Destination Development through Community Participation:
“Tourism in Destination Communities”, edited by Singh S., Timothy D.J., & Dowling
R.K. (2003), was broadly divided into three parts viz. community tourism
perspectives, community tourism dynamics, challenges and opportunities for
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destination communities. The first part ‘community tourism perspectives’, dealt with
the interrelationship between tourism and local people, diverse structural nature of
destination communities based on morphological traits, various efforts to place
destination communities into a broad based typology of tourism-destination
relationship. The anthropological and aboriginal issues relating to the identity
heritage, economic and present socio-cultural issues, political issues, rights,
responsibilities and ethical issues contributing to the proactive and sustainable
practices were taken into account in the second part of the book. The third part was
essentially addressing and entering into the deep aspects of tourism development and
planning, considering the level or extent of involvement of locale people, attitudes of
hosts, and inclusion or presentation of hosts in destination marketing.
3.6.30 Destination Development through Community Participation
Marcouiller, D. W., & Prey, J. (2004) mentioned that the supply of recreation and its
linkage to tourism ensured important regional development dimensions. He
proceeded with an idea that outdoor recreation and tourism appeal was a community
development strategy because of several relatively recent trends that included general
increases in leisure demand, changing rural economic patterns, perceptions of tourism
as a clean industry, relatively low capital requirements for business, and other
community development benefits (Frederick 1993; Power 1996; Marcouiller 1997).
He said, the empirical linkage between recreation sites and community development
indicators was complex, ill-defined, and often intractable (Dissart 2003).
3.6.31 Destination Development through Community Participation:
In their book “Strategic Management for Tourism Communities: Bridging the Gaps”,
P.E. Murphy, & Murphy A.N.(2006) advocated a solid understanding of the business
and community aspects of tourism as resources can be squandered on inappropriate
tourism developments that fail to meet the expectations of either the hosts or the
tourists. According to them, the entrance of the community in the global tourism
market resulted in two negative aspects. The first one was to misread the market and
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the community’s true competitive position within that market and the second one was
when a community of a successful destination failed to appreciate changes that
tourism can bring.
3.6.32 Destination Development through Community Participation
In the article “Community Capacity Building: An Emerging Challenge for Tourism
Development” Moscardo G. (2008) considered tourism development and more
specifically community based tourism development with various avenues opened for
community development through tourism activities. He also said that community
development through tourism could bring about equality, justice and social dignity.
But to ensure a sustainable orientation in community development the need for
impact assessment was advocated. Community development through tourism and its
impacts were multidimensional and was subject to the problems and prospects related
to a particular destination. The article has identified and analyzed several barriers to
effective tourism development including a model for community capacity building for
tourism management. The challenge for this model was that there existed critical gaps
in our knowledge of how to achieve the goals embedded in the community capacitybuilding approach to tourism development. An understanding of the processes dealing
with tourism impacts and an understanding of effective ways to enhance a
community’s collective tourism knowledge contributing to planning and evaluation
were considered in the model along with the mechanisms for improving community
participation.
3.6.33 Development through Community Participation:
In their article, “Community Based Tourism Development: A Case Study of Eco
Village Sari in Kedarnath Sanctuary Region”, Gupta S.K. and Bhatt. V.P. ( 2010)
addressed philosophical changes in tourism development from conventional mass
tourism to the adoption of alternative tourism through many frameworks and
strategies. They analyzed and interpreted socio-economic impacts of tourism and
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reviewed the opportunities and challenges for community based tourism through
SWOT analysis and opinion survey.
3.6.34 Sustainable Destination Development
Towards the approaches to sustainable tourism development Augustyn (1998)
strongly prescribed the need for environmental, social and economic sustainability or
two or more of its combination. She also discussed about a range varying from
different types of sustainability to its ways and means of integration that requires
strategic management of the overall development process. The author opined that the
chosen tourism and associated activities could contribute to a planned development.
A Strategic Tourism Unit (STU) was also suggested in order to implement the
strategy
relation to each of these products. Identification of barriers e.g. legal,
financial, fiscal etc. was suggested as one of the important activities of STUs.
Establishment of a system of the Destination Tourism Brand Products, with brand
managers appointed in order to coordinate the actions associated with each of the
brand products, was also recommended by this Polish experience of tourism
development. Strategy for the development of tourism can be based upon SWOT
analysis prior to its formulation. Strategy formulation was also based upon analysis
and assessment of resources and identification of growth areas. According to this
experience, strategy represented a vision for future tourism development, defined the
target markets, business goals and development priorities. Strategy also exhibited
action plan considering time and funding constraints, training and marketing action
plan considering time and funding constraints, training and marketing actions and
changes in organization structure.
3.6.35 Destination Development and Integrated Tourism Planning:
In his article “Problems and Issues of Integrating Tourism Development” Butler
R.W.(2005) highlighted different meanings and implications of the term integration in
tourism with the changing time and facets. Since the era of newly introduced mass
tourism to the modern complex supply side developmental aspects of destinations, the
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term integration included and changed several meanings but the core point is the
success of tourism development depends largely on integration at destination level;
industry level or such other levels as may be required. To most planners, developers
and managers efficiency is a goal to be achieved, and steps and processes which need
the process of completion and acceptability of development are to be welcomed as a
mean to achieve sustainability. The policy issues in integration included priority,
control, scale, stage, and timing of development, community harmony and conflict.
3.6.36 HR Issues in Destination Development:
The book “HRM in Hotel and Tourism Industry: Existing Trends and Practices”,
written by Singh P.K. (2008) addressed a diagnostic checklist, employee education
and training with respect to the recent trends in the hospitality and tourism industry.
Steps in developing HRM strategy and diagnostic checklists were outlined based on
case studies and educational syllabi. This book further addressed the issue of human
resource training with reference to the union certification elections, trainers chart,
food service management, women chefs, associations.
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3.7 Emerging Scope and Areas of Destination Marketing
Ritchi J.R.B. (1999) noticed that the general market affluence has been replaced by
highly specific market niches, each having very individualistic characteristics,
incomes and behaviors. Societal concerns for environmental protection placed new
constraints on both the development and operation of destination facilities. At the
same time, the emergence of many new highly attractive and/or complementary
destinations often having considerable cost advantages has dramatically altered the
intensity of competition in the marketplace. As a consequence, destinations that failed
to take a proactive management action have greater risk to follow stagnation and/or
decline.
The ‘Tourism Industry’ is a ‘market’ (tourist-needs), as opposed to ‘product’ (tourism
facilities) driven industry. Therefore the market needs and demands need to be
understood and taken into account prior to providing recommendations for product
development support (Kwazulu-Natal Tourism Authority, 2002).
In the book, “Trends in Tourism promotion; Emerging Issues”,
Bagri S.C. ( 2003)
tried to emphasize the need and importance of setting up of a standing Himalayan
Tourism Advisory Board ( HIMTAB) for inter-state cooperation in the development
of hill tourism through joint marketing, publicity and promotion and initiating
innovative development plans in close interaction with the tourism industry.
Nicolau J.L., &. Más F.J. (2006) explained how the existence of strong heterogeneous
tourism demand was introducing a wide and diverse range of market segmentation for
the choice of a destination with an increasing emphasis on relationship marketing as
the analysis of tourist destination choice represented one of the most fruitful lines of
investigation in Tourism studies (Fesenmaier et al., 2002), and distinguished various
approaches to the definition of tourist destination. Alternatively, this study presented
the innovation of identifying decision processes individual by individual, tourist by
tourist. To achieve this, the authors proposed a segmentation of the tourism market
based on revealed preferences towards a destination. These reveal preferences had the
twofold implication that allowed to form groups of tourists with similar preferences
or to treat them individually. The second section reviewed the analysis of choice in
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tourism, in which the authors stated the importance of studying the choice behavior
of tourists, through revealed preferences and compared them with stated preference
with a viable literature survey of destination choice and related attributes. The third
section presented the research design, in which the detail of the methodology applied
and the sample and data used. The fourth section showed the results obtained, both
from the estimation of the utility function for each tourist and from the segmentation
analysis. In the fifth section, the implications for management and future lines of
research was discussed.
In their article “An Assessment of Service Quality in Vietnam: The Cross-Cultural
Perspectives of Chinese and American Tourists” , Truong and King ( 2006), have
discussed and analyzed the wide ranging destination market segments varying from
visitor demographics , travel characteristics to important supply led aspects of a
destination. The distinctive feature of the article was to the recognition and analysis
of Cross-Cultural issues between United States of America and Vietnam. They
addressed important origin-destination specific socio-cultural issues and how those
issues were contributing to the development of effective marketing mix including a
distinct Unique Selling Proportion.
In their article, “Cross Cultural Tourism Marketing” Chan P. and Pizam A. (2006)
differentiated cross cultural marketing from international marketing. International
marketing implied marketing across the globe and cross cultural borders but it did not
intend to cover marketing efforts domestically within multicultural nations. They
explained how nationality, ethnicity, culture and sub-culture influence destination
choice, tourist activities, expectation, perception and quality of services.
Traditionally, the elements of culture and its changes found significant implications
as the cultures throughout the world covered but retained their uniqueness. So they
discussed strategies with respect to each element of marketing and how to gain brand
equity.
In his book “Tourism Product and Services: Development Strategy and Management
Options” Sharma J.K. (2007) emphasized on product development and its
improvement of quality related services. Contemporary tourism services, tourism
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product development, sustainable tourism product development, quality management
in tourism, sustainable tourism certification and training, tourism product
development strategy, management and research.
In his article, “Marketing National Parks Using Ecotourism as a Catalyst”, Wearing,
S. (2008) addressed the confusion and controversies surrounding tourism practices in
the places/ national parks where eco tourism played the role of a catalyst. He
emphasized more on marketing that brought an alternative paradigm and made it
possible to increase the breadth and depth of understanding as to how these places/
parks were needed to shift their management approaches and to increase a ‘new
view’. Later he admitted that the low intensity, small scale ecotourism development
may be feasible only in the early phases and will bring contention and contradiction
with the passage of time as the intention of profit maximization increases. So, the
generic term destination has several meanings ranging from the geographical
perspective to a product to be consumed or an experience to be gained. It can be a
place to be visited repeatedly to a place of life time experience. Having been
extensively interrelated and interdependent with geography, sociology, environmental
science, economics, anthropology, commerce and trade etc., modern tourism has
always unified itself with a dominant role of marketing management. But the
marketing orientation of tourist destination has been changing with the relevance and
inclusion of many existing and new subjects as destination development literature
needs a solid support from other subjects with respect to a specific market orientation
i.e. the key factor of the demand-supply equilibrium in this open market economy of
the world. Prioritizing destination marketing and its ever changing aspects will
certainly contribute to the all stakeholders and as such will bring in an adoption of
green marketing approaches. But destination marketing is different in that here the
product formulation and the product itself are multiple and jointly contributing to the
experience. Consumption of a place is also different from the residence of the
customers and the derived demand should not exceed the actual demand though both
of them need to be properly integrated. Many tourism products can target different
group of customers at a time or during different seasons e.g. Sikkim can target mass
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and non mass tourists both or differentiate customer segments with the changes in
season. De-marketing strategy could also be seen in many places to maintain the
carrying capacity level (as the supply is lumpy) and quality of the product. The most
important feature of the destination marketing and management in respect of the
product quality is the specification of its parameters. Since such specification
describes the service and defines its features, it should be the most comprehensive
description of all product aspects needed to meet the consumer expectations in the
best possible way. Thus he emphasized on the strategy formulation for tourism
product development to get synergetic value from each component of tourism product
and thereby to ensure integrated quality management. The right strategy will help in
achieving a sustainable tourism development in the region and will increase the
quality of overall tourism products to the natural and anthropogenic features of the
destination.
In his article “ Demographic Profile of the Tourist: A Case Study of Tourist’s Purpose
of Visit to Jammu and Kashmir State”, Choudhury, U. ( 2010) enlightened on
demographic profile of tourists visiting Jammu and Kashmir and how the
characteristics are contributing to the purpose of visit or selection of a destination or a
set of destination found therein. He has also considered the destination Unique
Selling Proportion (USP) at the same time and its influences on demographic profile
ultimately contributing to the destination choice.
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3.8 Conclusion
The review of literature is broadly divided into six categories, covering the term (i)
destination (ii) its planning, (iii) management (iv) strategy (v) development and (vi)
emerging scope and areas of destination marketing. The multi-disciplinary issues of
the generic term ‘destination’, confusion and similar notions, narrow and holistic
concepts, managerial implications, planning, policy and formulation of strategy have
been addressed in the first and second phases. Considering the emerging issues and
changing aspects of ‘destination’ and its ‘management’, all possible areas of
destination- management and development through different means and ways have
been addressed in the third and forth phases. Through survey, it is found that the
development of any tourist destination from time to time need support from within
the destination called supply domain comprising all supply components and their
beneficiaries. To reach the maturity of tourism development in a destination,
innovation, importance or acceptability, involvement, investment and identity/image
are the most required five elements. Therefore, the fifth phase is addressing and
dealing with the initiatives and perceptions of the government and other private
bodies with regarded to those five elements contributing to the development of
tourism in Sikkim. The sixth phase is dealing with the emerging issues in destination
marketing and its changing aspects keeping in view its traditional dominant roles to
maintain either side of demand and supply in tourism industry. Instead of marketing
for goods or services, the literature survey directly advocated destination marketing
principles for tourism with distinct characteristics.
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3.9 References:
1.
Ansoff, H.I. (1968). Corporate strategy. Mc Graw Hill, New York.
2.
Aronsson L.( 2000). The development of sustainable tourism, ( pp.127-168).
London and New York: Continuum.
3.
Athiyaman, A. (1995). The Interface of Tourism and Strategy Research: An
Analysis.Tourism Management, 16(6):447–53.
4.
Bagri, S.C., (2003). Trends in tourism promotion (emerging issues). Himalayan
Eco Tourism Society. Sri Nagar, Garhwal: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh (
23-A Connaught Place, Dehradun).
5.
Baker K. Kerala’s strategy for tourism growth: A southern approach to
development and poverty alleviation. In Burns P., & Novelli M. ( Ed.) (2008).
Tourism development: Growths, myths and inequalities , ( pp.192-216). UK:
CABI.
6.
Battacharya, B. Tourism in the Himalaya in the context of Darjeeling and
Sikkim. In Singh, S., & Singh, T. ( Ed.). (1996). Profiles in Indian Tourism (pp.
57-66). New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing Corporation.
7.
Budowski, G. (1976) Tourism and conservation: Conflict, co-existence or
symbiosis?
8.
Environmental Conservation 3 (1), 27–31.
Buhalis, D. (1997). Information Technlogy as a Strategic Tool for Economic,
Social, Cultural and Environmental Benefits Enhancement of Tourism at
Destination Regions. Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3(1), 7193. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
9.
Buhalis, D. (1999). Tourism on the Greek Islands: Issues of peripherality,
competitiveness and development. International Journal of Tourism Research,
1(1), 341-358. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
10.
Buhalis, D. (2000). Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tourism
Management, 21(1), 97 -116.
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