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1. POWER SHARING
Democracy: is the form of government which means “rule by the people.” In this system the
citizens choose their leaders by voting on the basis of Universal adult franchise with one vote one
value. The leaders chosen by the people take decisions on their behalf. People have the freedom to
express their views and the elected representatives are answerable to people in the legislature.
1.1 Power sharing: A policy or system in which power is shared among different organs of
government, at different levels, among social groups and political parties for making decisions
and taking political action. It is a strategy where in all the major segments of the society are
provided with a permanent share of power in the governance of the country.
In deeply divided and multiethmic societies all the groups seek their representation in the
working of the system. It involves a wide areay of political arrangements – usually embodied in
constitutional terms in which the principal elements of society are guaranteed a place and
influence in governance.
 It is not necessary for a country to be big in size to follow power sharing solutions. Other
factors like multi-ethnicity, racial, cultural, linguistic, regional differences play an equally
important role in devising power sharing solutions. Power sharing solutions are adopted to
maintain stability in the system and peace among various groups to ensure the smooth
functioning of the system, irrespective of the size of the country. It discards discrimination
based on caste or creed. It infuses a spirit of belongingness and trust among the citizens
who feel that they have a stake in the system.
1.2 Why Power Sharing is Desirable?
Two different set of reason can be given in favour of power sharing.
(I) Prudential Reasons: these reasons are based on careful calculations of gains and losses
occurring due to adoption of a particular style of governance.
(i)
It helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups. Since social
conflicts often leads to violence and political instability, Power sharing ensures
stability of political order.
(ii) The rule of majority is oppressive for the minority who might feel neglected and
ignored when their interests are not duly taken care of Power sharing relies upon
the joint exercise of power.
(II) Moral reasons: Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy. A democratic rule involves
giving voice and representation to all the people who would be affected by the policies and
the rule made.
The basic principles of power sharing include
(i)
Coalition government, in where nearly all political parties have a just share.
(ii) Protection of minority rights
(iii) Decentralization of power
(iv) Decision making by consensus.
So to ensure a peaceful environment for every body and to enable every body to live
together with unity in a country, it is necessary to respect the feelings, sentiments and
interests of different communities and regions.
1.3 Different form of Power sharing in Modern Democracies:
(1)
Power is shared between different organs of government: It is also called as
horizontal distribution of powers because it allows different organs of government placed
at the same level to exercise different powers. No particular organ enjoys unlimited power
in its area each organ check the other, this result in balances of power among various
institutions power is shared between Legislature, executive & judiciary.
(a) Legislature: It is concerned with passing laws, controlling the finances of the
States and deliberating on matters of public importance.
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(b)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Executive: It implements the policies of the government and executes the laws
made by the legislative bodies. They are responsible to the Parliament or states
Assemblies
(c) Judiciary: It is concerned with the interpretation of the laws and has the power to
punish those who commit crimes or break the laws. Through judges are appointed
by the executive they can check the functioning of executive or laws made by the
legislature.
Power is shared among government at different levels: Power is divided between
higher and lower levels of government, thus it can be called vertical division of power.
Power is shared between general government for the entire country and governments at
the provincial or regional level. The same principle can be extended to levels of
government lower than the state government, such as the municipality and panchayat.
The powers and rights of various levels of the country are clearly specified to avoid
clashes and conflicts.
Power is shared among various social groups: Which can be based on religious or
linguistic lines. Community government as followed by Belgium falls into this category
where all the major communities get power relating to their social matters. In some
countries there are constitutional and legal arrangements where by socially weaker
sections and women are represented in the legislatures and administration. This method
is used to give minority a fair share in power
Power is shared among various political parties: so that there is competition among
them to gain majority in the parliament and thus form the government. This multiparty
system provides option for the voters to choose from and also keeps the ruling party under
pressure to perform better to win majority in the future. Sometimes several parties join
together to prove their majority, they form coalition government thus share power.
 Majoritarianism:
It is a political philosophy which asserts that a majority of the population (majority by language,
religion etc) has the right to take the decisions affecting the society. It means submission of the
minority group to the majority group for all the decisions affecting their lives. It often results in
preferential policies being followed, favouring the majority group in Educational institutions,
government jobs and other opportunities thus denying the minority equal rights and
opportunities.
This results in tyranny of the majority which breeds the feeling of alienation among the minority
group. Also the insensitivity to their language and culture and ignorance of their interests
results in feeling of resentment and strained relations between the two groups. This leads to
struggles and conflicts among the groups which causes political instability and tensions in the
country.
1.4 Accomodation in Belguim and Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka:
Let us understand the sharing of power through examples of two democracies- Belguim and
Sri-Lanka.
Sri-Lanka: It gained independence from U.K. on 4 Feb., 1948. Sri-Lanka is a multi religious
and multi-ethmic nation. The Sinhalese community forms the majority (around 74%) of the
population with Tamils, who are mostly concentrated in the north and east of island, forming
the largest ethnic minority. The Sinhala speaking people are Buddhist while most of the
Tamils are Hindu or Muslims. The leader of the Sinhala community sought to secure
dominance over the government by virtue of their majority. In 1956, an act was passed, which
recognized Sinhala as the only official language of Sri-Lanka. The government fovoured
Sinhala applicant for university positions and government jobs. A new constitution stipulated
the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
All such measures bred the feeling of alienation among the Tamils. They felt that their
language and culture was ignored and undermined by major political parties lead by the
Buddist Sinhala leaders. It lead to civil war waged by the Tamils who fight to create an
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independent state named TAMILEELAM in the north and east of country. As a result
thousands of people of both the community have been killed. This civil war has caused a
terrible setback to the social, cultural and economic life of the country.
Therefore, it is indispensable to recognize and regard the cultural and other identifying
differences of various groups and create mutually acceptable policies for sharing power.
Belgium: It is a small country in north-west Europe. The ethnic composition of the country is
very complex 59% of its population speaks Dutch, 40% speaks French less than 1% speak
German. In Brussels (Capital) region around 80% people speak French and 20% are Dutch
speaking. This linguistic diversity had often lead to political an cultural conflicts.
To avoid civic strife and political tensions in the country, the leaders followed policies by which
they sought to give equal representation to Dutch and French speakers in the govt. Some of the
elements of the Belgium model are
(1) In the central government there would be equal number of French and Dutch speakers
according to the constitution No decisions can be made by a single community, since they
would require the support of majority of members from each linguistic group.
(2) The state government would not be subordinate to the central government for decisions
taken by them.
(3) The capital region of Brussels has its own government with both committees enjoying
equal powers.
(4) Belgium also implemented the model of community government, which is elected by the
people democratically for each linguistic group. This government has powers over their
cultural, language and educational related matters Policies followed by Belgium are
complicated but have enabled the leaders in creating an environment for every one to live
together with unity without disturbing the social fabric of the country.
Sharing of Power in Lebanon- In Lebanon, there is conflict between the Muslims and Christians.
Both have almost equal population. By an agreement, they share the power. The agreement
continues to be respected.
Q.
A.
Why is power sharing desirable?
It reduces the possibility of conflict between social groups.
Q.
A.
What does social conflict lead to?
Social conflict leads to violence and political instability.
Q.
A.
How does tyranny of the majority bring ruin ?
Dominance of the majority is oppressive and unjust to the minorities. It brings ruin to the
Majority as well.
Q.
A.
Why is power sharing desirable for democracies ?
Power sharing is the root of democracy. It is the very essence and spirit of democracy.
Q.
A.
How can citizens have a stake in the Government ?
Citizens can have a right to be consulted on how they are to be governed. A legitimate gov
-ernment is one where citizens participate.
Q.
A.
How is power shared among different organs of the government ?
Power is shared between the legislature, executive and the judiciary. This is called
horizontal distribution of power,because it allows different organs at the same level to
exercise different powers.
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Q.
A.
How is power shared among governments at different levels ?
Power is shared among governments at the followings different levels
1
Centre
2
State
3
Municipality
4
Panchayat
Decentralization of government powers enables everyone in the country to participate in the
Governments of the country.
Q.
A.
What is Vertical Division of power?
Division of power between the higher and lower levels of the government is called vertical
Division of power.
Q.
A.
Why is power shared in a Democracy?
Power is shared in a democracy. Democracy is a system of government where power is in the
hands of people’s representative. Power is shared at several levels to fulfill the following
objective
(a) It helps in division of power at three levels: central, state and local.
(b) It helps in providing social and economic justice to people.
(c) The implementation of civil liberties gives even the mute people a voice.
(d) It helps in reduction of poverty as even socially disadvantaged groups are allowed to
share power in society. Democracy is a weapon of the disadvantaged against the
established privileges and power of the society.
(e) Rural participation along with strong tribal participation brings democracy to the
grassroot.
(f)
It gives voice to the marginalized whose movements and organizations are benefited
by extracting gains from political parties in exchange of their support.
(g) It helps in raising the level of Human Development Index which indicates the quality of
life people lead in a country.
Q.
A.
How is the power shared at the central level in India?
The framers of Indian constitution adopted a parliamentary system of government based on
the British Westminster model. The basic idea behind the adoption of such a system was to
make coalition of desperate political forces possible and to evolve a political system based on
consensus. Suitable efforts have, however, been made to modify and improve the British model
to suit and apply especially to the Indian social conditions. The central government structures
in India have the following essential attributes
(a) The head of executive or state is the Indian President who is indirectly elected by an
electoral college consisting of members of Parliament and members of the Legislative
Assembly. However, he is a nominal head since India has a parliamentary system of
government.
(b) The sovereign authority in India is vested in the Indian Parliament. The Indian
Parliament consists of the President and the two houses: Lok Sabha, which is the lower
house of Parliament and Rajya Sabha, which is the upper house of the Parliament.
Q.
A.
Describe major provisions of the Panchayat Raj Actor 73 Constitutional Amendment Act 1993 ?
The main features of this Act are as under.
(1) Seats should be reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled tribes in proportion to their
population. One – third of the total number of seats should beseserved for women.
(2) The term of a Panchayat has been fixed for five years and in the event of dissolution,
elations would be held within six months.
(3) Panchayats have been entrusted with the administration fo certain subjects. It includes
29 Items such as agriculture and allied activities, minor irrigation schemes, land reforms,
small industries, rural housing , drinking water, public distribution system, welfare
schemes for weaker sections etc,
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(4)
Q.
A.
An independent State Election Commission would be set up for superintendence,
direction and control of electoral process of Panchayats.
(5) Each state would have State Finance Commission which would determine the principle on
which financial resources would be entrusted to Panchayats.
What is the significance of Local self government?
(1) Local government provides an opportunity to people to govern themselves.
(2) Decentralization or devolution of power from higher to lower levels is the real guarantee
for the success of democracy in a country.
(3) Local people have better knowledge about the local needs of the people such as can
manage them more effectively than other levels of government .
(4) Local government consists of officials who serve as honorary members. The system is
therefore less expensive.
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2. FEDERALISM
Federation is a system of government in which the power of the state is divided between the central
government and the government of the various constituents units of the country or state
4.
5.
Constitutional
changes
require the consent of
both
the
levels
of
government
Disputes between levels of
government settled
by
Supreme Court
3.
2.
Levels of government have
independent
jurisdiction
Key Features of
Federalism
1.
6.
Existence and authority of
the levels of government
constitutionally guaranted
Financial autonomy for each
level of government
7.
Two or more levels
government
Promote unity of the
country
accommodate regional diversity
of
and
There are two different forms of government
1
2
Unitary government: Under this system, either there is only one level of government or the
submits are subordinate to the central government. Main powers are given to the central
government. Countries such as Sri Lanka, France, Italy, Japan, U.K., China, North Korea,
have unitary type of government.
Federal government: It means the sharing of power between a central government authority
and various constituent units. The power is shared among the central government and various
states, regional and local governments. Both the central and non-central governments are
answerable to the citizens of the country who elect them. The United States and Canada,
Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Germany, India, Mexico and Switzerland have
federal systems.
There are two routes of forming a federation
(i)
(ii)
Coming together federation: Under this route, various independent states agree to come
together and form a single big unit. This helps in pooling all the resources for better and
efficient management of all the states through one central unit. In this type of federation, all
the states have equal powers among themselves and are strong in relation to the central
government. Ex.:- USA, Switzerland and Australia
Holding together federation: Under this route, a large unit decides to share its powers
between one central unit and several small units. The power is divided among the central
authority and various states authorities. In this type of federation, states do not have equal
power among themselves and the centre is relatively stronger in comparison to the states.
Ex.:- India, Spain and Belgium
2.2 What makes India a Federal country?
Nature of the Indian Federal System: Constitution says “India, shall be a Union of states
here Union indicates that the Indian federation is not the result of an agreement by the units
and that the component units have no freedom to secede from it. India’s constitutional system
is basically federal, but with striking unitary features
The Indian constitution satisfy the following characteristics of a basically federal constitute
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(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Unlike a unitary state, which has only one government, namely, the national
government, India has two kinds of governments functioning at two different levelsUnion government and the government of each component State.
The constitution of the States has been given by a duly constituted body consisting of
the representatives of the Indian people, which has made a clear-cut distribution of
powers between the federal government and the state government.
The supremacy lies with the constitution from which both the union and the state
governments derive their authority.
The Supreme Court has been entrusted with the responsibility of guarding the
distribution of powers between the Center and the States, and to invalidate any action
which violates the limitations imposed by the constitution.
Constitution clearly provided a three fold distribution of Legislature powers between the Union
government and the state government, thus, it contains three lists
(1)
The union list consists of 97 subjects. The important among these are Defence, Atomic Energy,
Foreign Affairs, Diplomatic, Consular and Trade representations, War and Peace, Citizenship,
Railways, Shipping and Navigation, Airways, Aircraft and Air Navigation, Posts and
Telegraphs, Currency and Coinage, Inter-state Trade and Commerce, Banking, Insurance,
Census, Audit and Accounts of the Union and of the States and residuary subjects.
(2)
The important subjects in the State List are Law and Order, Police, Health and Sanitation,
Agriculture, Fisheries, Trade and Commerce within the State, Land Revenue and State Public
Services, Regulation of Mines and Mineral Development, Industries, Relief of the Disabled and
Unemployable, Protection and Improvement of stock, Water, Land and Forests.
(3)
The important subjects in the Concurrent list are Criminal Law and Procedure, Preventive
Detention, Marriage and Divorce, Economic and Social Planning. Trade Unions, Industrial
and Labour Disputes, Factories, Electricity, Newspapers, Mental Deficienc, Adulteration of
Foodstuffs, Drugs, Vocational Training, Legal, Medical and other Professions, Price control,
Education, Administration of Justice, Family Planning.

The three list of constitution clearly dividing power sharing between Central and State also
have an arrangement to take care of those subjects which do not fall in any list. Those
subjects become residuary power given to centre only such as electronic industry, computer
software etc.
States Under Indian Federation:


There is a normal division of power under which the state enjoys autonomy within their own
spheres, with the power to raise revenue.
All States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. Some enjoy a special status like
Jammu and Kashmir
1 In the case of Jammu and Kashmir, the residuary power shall belong to the Legislature
of the State.
2 The plenary power of the Indian Parliament is also curbed in certain other matters, with
respect to J & K, e.g. (i) alteration of the name or territories of the State (ii) international
treaty or agreement affecting the disposition of any part of the territory of the state. In
these matters, the consent of the State Legislature is required.
3 The Union shall have no power to make a Proclamation of Financial Emergency with
respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir
4 The State of J & K has its own Constitution (made by a separate Constituent Assembly
and Promulgated in 1957).
5 While an act of Parliament is required for the amendment of any of the provisions of the
Constitution of India, the provisions of the State Constitution of J & K , may be amended
by an act of the Legislative Assembly of the State, passed by majority of not less than
two thirds of its membership.
6 No alteration of the area or boundaries of J & K can be made by Parliament without the
consent of the Legislature of the State of J & K.
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
There are some units of the Indian union which are too small to become independent state but
which are too small to become an independent state but which could not be merged with any of
the existing state
These areas like Chandigarh, Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Dadra and Nagar
Haveli, Daman and Div and Pondecherry.
(1) Administration: Every Union Territory is administered by the President acting, to such
extent as he thinks fit, through an Administrator to be appointed by him with such
designation.
(2) Legislative Power: Parliament has exclusive power over a Union Territory, including
matters in the State List. The President may make regulations for the Island territories.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu and Pondichery.
(3) High Court: Parliament may by law constitute a High court for a Union territory or declare
any court in any such Territory to be a High court. Thus the Punjab and Haryana High Court
acts as the High Court of Chandigarh; Lakshaweep is under the jurisdiction of the Kerala
High Court; the Calcutta High Court has got jurisdiction over the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands; the Madras High Court has jurisdiction over Pondicherry, the Bombay High Court
over Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The territory of Daman and Diu comes under Bombay High
court Delhi has a separate High Court of its own since 1966.
2.3 How is Federalism Practised in India:
The real success of federalism in India is due to the nature of democratic politics in India. This
ensured that the spirit of federalism, respect for diversity and desire for living together
became a shared ideal in our country.
The way in which this happened
(1) Linguistic States: India was reconstituted into new States based on languages being
spoken by majority of people residing that area after independence. Many states vanished
and many new states have been created. In 1947, the boundaries of several old states of
India were changed in order to create new states. This was done to ensure that people
who spoke the same language live in the same State. Some states were created not on the
basis of language but to recognize differences based on culture, ethnicity or geography.
These include States like Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand.
(2) Language policy: Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to any
one language. Hindi was identified official language. But Hindi is the mother tongue of
only about 40 per cent of Indians. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognized
as Scheduled languages by the constitution. States too have their own official languages.
Much of the government work takes place in the official language of the concerned State.
(3) Centre-State relations: The formation of coalition government initiated by B.J.P.
accommodating Regional parties in the formation of central government led to a new
culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of States governments. This trend
was supported by a major judgement of the Supreme court that made it difficult for the
Central Government to dismiss state governments in an arbitrary manner.
2.4 Decentralization in India
When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government,
it is called decentralization, it is called decentralization. The basic idea behind decentralization
is that there are a large number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local level.
People have better knowledge of problems in their localities. They also have better ideas on
where to spend money and how to manage things more efficiently. Besides, at the local level it
is possible for the people to directly participate in decision making. A major step towards
decentralization was taken in 1992. The constitution was taken in 1992. The Contitution was
amended to make the third-tier of democracy more powerful and effective.
 Now it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
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




Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for
the Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
An interdependent called the State Election Commission has been created in each State to
conduct Panchayat and municipal elections.
The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local
government bodies. The nature of sharing varies from State to State.
1
Rural local government is popularly known by the name panchayati raj. President
or sarpanch. Are directly elected by all the adult population living in that village. It
is the decision-making body for the entire village. The Panchayat works under the
overall supervision of the gram sabha. All the voters in the village are its members.
It has to meet at least twice or thrice in a year to approve the annual budget of the
gram Panchayat and to review the performance of the gram panchayat. A few gram
Panchayats are grouped together to form a Panchayat samiti or block or mandal.
The members of this representative body are elected by all the Panchayat members
in that area. All the Panchayat samitis or mandals in a district together constitute
the zilla (district) parishad. Zilla parishad chairperson is the political head of the
zilla parishad.
2
Urban, local government:- Municipalities are set up in towns. Big cities are
constituted into municipal corporations. Both municipalities and municipal
corporations are controlled by elected bodies consisting of people’s representatives.
Municipal chairperson is the political head of the municipality. In a municipal
corporation such an officer is called the mayor.
Difficulties:- While elections are held regularly and enthusiastically, gram sabhas are not
held regularly. Most state governments have not transferred significant powers to the local
governments. Nor have they given adequate resources.
2.5 Experiments in Brazil
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
A city called Porto Alegre in Brazil has carried out an extraordinary experiment in combining
decentralization with participative democracy. The city has set up a parallel organization
operating alongside the municipal council, enabling local inhabitants to take real rescission for
their city. The city is divided into many sectors. Each sector has a meeting, in which anyone
living in that area can participate. The budget of the city is discussed in these meetings. The
proposals are put to the municipality that takes a final decision about it. This method has
ensured that the money cannot be spent only for the benefit of the colonies where rich people
live. Buses now run to the poor colonies and builders cannot evict slum-dwellers without
resettling them. In our own country, a similar experiment has taken place in some areas in
Kerala.
On the outline map of the world mark any four countries other than India that has a Federal
System of government.
U.S.A. Canada, Brazil, Australia, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, Argentina, Nigeria, Pakistan,
Venezuela, Austria, Malaysia & Germany
Pick out the special feature of the Federal Government :
(a) National government gives some powers the provinces
(b) Power is distributed among the legislature, executive and Judiciary
(c) Elected officials exercise supreme power in the Government
(d) Governmental power is divided between different levels of government
(d)
Complete the statement. Srilanka has_______________________
(a) Federal government
(b) Socialist government
(c) Unitary government
(d) Coalition government
(c)
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Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Group the countries into the two types of federations :
USA, Belgium, Switzerland. India, Spain, Australia
Coming Together Federation: USA, Switzerland, Australia
Holding Together Federation : India, Spain, and Belgium
A few subjects in various Lists of Indian Constitution are giver here . Group them under
The Union, State and State and Concurrent Lists, as provided in the table below :
(a) Defence
(b) Police
(c) Agriculture
(d) Education
(e) Banking
(f)
Forests
(g) Communication
(h) Trade
(i)
Marriages
Union list
(a) Defence, Communication, Banking
State list
(b) Police, Agriculture, Trade,
Concurrent list
(d) Education, Forests, Marriages
What are the subjects that don’t fall into the three lists called?
Who legislates on them ?
Such subjects are called as Residuary Subjects. The Union Government Legislates on them.
Who decides disputes regarding division of power ?
The High Courts and Supreme Courts decide disputes
Could the Rajasthan Government have prevented nuclear tests in ?
Rajasthan, initiated by the Union government ?
No, as Defence comes under the Union list. Testing nuclear Equipment is a government
prerogative
Q.
A.
Which states in India are created based on culture, ethnicity and Geography ?
Nagaland , Uttaranchal and Jharkhand
Q.
A.
What are scheduled languages ?
The 21 languages included in our Constitution other than Hindi
Q.
Power sharing is better since 1990 because_______________
(a) Regional parties are strong and control State Government
(b) States have a grater power than the centre
(c) Coalition government area successful
(d) Great participation of regional parties & respect for
Autonomy of the state government
(d)
A.
Q.
A.
How is the administrative system in Sri Lanka different fror the System in Belgium ?
Sri Lanka has Unitary form of government , where national has total power over
administration , whereas, in Belgium Regional Governments are giver constitutional powers,
they function independently. Belgium has a Federal form of government
Q.
A.
What type of federation does India have ? How is it different from that of USA ?
India has ‘holding , together federation’ , wherein power is divided constitutionally between
state and Centre. While in the USA, they have ‘coming together federation’, where States pool
in their sovereignty and yet retain their identity.
Q.
Why do some state enjoy special powers in India ?
Which are they ?
Respecting the special needs of the people, some states have been given unique states. Eg.
Jammu & Kashmir – it has own Constitution. Many provisions of our constitution are not
applicable to this state without the approval of the state assembly. Similarly the Union
Territories come directly under Union Government
A.
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Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Read the following conversation and answer the given questions:
Harish
:
India has a flexible language policy
Meena
:
Too flexible that we have so many disputes related to languages
John
:
See what is happening in Srilanka! Language problems have taken alarming
proportions .
Shyama :
I think in India we don’t have such problems though sometimes some minor
disputes do arise. I think our leaders have been wise.
Were the makers of our Constitution wise in framing the Language policy ?
Our leaders have been wise, as they never forcefully imposed the National language policy.
In addition to Hindi there are 21 scheduled languages. A policy of caution and flexibility
Has been adopted.
Is it possible to change the power sharing arrangement? If so , How?
Yes , it is possible to changer the power sharing arrangement.
But it is not an easy process. Any change to be passed by 2/3rd majority of both houses
And be ratified by at least ½ total seats of state legislature.
Q.
A.
What are the main features of a Federation?
The following are the main features:
(a) Two of more levels of government exist
(b) Each level has its own jurisdiction on matter of taxation and administration
(c) Authority of each is constitutionally guaranteed
(d) Any change in the fundamental provisions of the Constitution requires consent of both
levels of the Government
(e) Courts have power to interpret the constitution
(f)
Sources of revenue for each level are specified for financial autonomy
(g) Federal system has dual objectives:
(i)
Safeguard and promote unity of the country
(ii) Accommodate regional diversity
Q.
A.
What are the special features of India’s language policy?
The special features are:
(a) Hindi has been identified as he official language
(b) special safeguards have been taken to protect other languages
(c) 21 other languages have been identified as Scneduled Langueges by the constifution
(d) Much of the government work takes place in respective States in the official state
languages
(e) The government accepts English along with Hindi for official purposes respecting the
sentiments expressed by some states
(f)
The government however promotes the use of Hindi but does not force fully impose it
(g) India’s Languages Policy is flexible and exercised with caution
Q.
A.
What is Decentralisation ? How has the three-tier democracy become powerful and effective?
In Decentralisation, power is taken away from the Central and State Governments and given
to local Government
The three-tier democracy has become powerful and effective in the following ways :
(a) It is mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.
(b) Seats are reserved in executive bodies for SC, ST & OBC Category
(c) 2/3 rd seats are reserved for women
(d) The state election Commission conducts Panchayat and municipal elections
(e) State share powers and revenue with local bodies
Q.
A.
What are the special features of India’s language policy?
(i) Hindi has been identified as the official language.
(ii) 21 other languages have been identified as scheduled Languages by the constitution.
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(iii) Much of the government work takes place in respective states in the official state
languages.
(iv) The government accepts English along with Hindi for official purposes respecting the
sentiments expressed by some states.
(v) The government however promotes the use of Hindi but does not forcefully impose it.
Q.
A.
What is Decentralization?
When power is taken away from Centeral and State governments and given to local
governments, it is called decentralization.
Q.
A.
What is Panchayat Raj?
Panchayat Raj is a system of local government at the village level. It is administered by
councils consisting of local representatives of people. It provides the requisite administrative
apparatus for fulfilling common needs of the rural people. It was introduced in India in 1959 on
the basis of Balwant Rai Mehta Committee report. It has a three tier structure of local
government. These include
(a) Village Panchayat at Village level
(b) Panchayat Samiti at Block Level
(c) Zila Parishad at District level.
Q.
Describe major provisions of the Panchayat Raj Act or 73 Constitutional Amendment Act
1993?
The main features of this Act are as under.
(i)
Seats should be reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled tribes in proportion to
their population. One-third of the total number of seats should be reserved for women.
(ii) The term of a Panchayat has been fixed for five years and in the event of dissolution,
elections would be held within six months.
(iii) Panchayats have been entrusted with the administration of certain subjects. It includes
29 items such as agriculture and allied activities, minor irrigation schemes, land
reforms, small industries, rural housing, drinking water, public distribution system,
welfare schemes for weaker sections etc.
(iv) An independent State Election Commission would be set up for superintendence,
direction and control of electoral process of Panchayats.
(v) Each state would have State Finance Commission which would determine the
principle on which financial resources would be entrusted to Panchayats.
What is the significance of Local self government?
(i)
Local government provides an opportunity to people to government themselves.
(ii) Decentralization or devolution of power from higher to lower levels is the real
guarantee for the success of democracy in a country.
(iii) Local people have better knowledge about the local needs of the people such as
electricity, water supply, public works, health, sanitation, primary education etc. They
can manage them more effectively than other levels of government.
(iv) Local government consists of officials who serve as honorary members. The system is
therefore, less expensive.
A.
Q.
A.
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3. DEMOCRACY & DIVERSITY
Democracy is the only system of government which gives the people an opportunity to choose
their representative who run the government his system balances the division of caste, colour, creed,
religion, language and gender.
3.1 Social Differences: Social difference means difference in a set of people due to difference
in their race, religion, language or culture. But these differences are more of accidental by
nature. A person does not choose his community where he would be born. People are tall or
short, dark or fair, male or female, more by accident and not by their own choice.
Not all kinds of social differences are accidental by nature. People choose to follow or not to
follow a particular religion. They choose their field of study and the career path that they want
to take in their life. All such social groups are formed because of their own choice. Thus, some
social differences are accidental by nature and some result from people’s own choice. Social
differences result in social dursion. It becomes a social division when some social differences
are joined by another set of social differences. In other words, when two or more social
differences join together, it turns into a social division. For example, the difference in the
Blacks and the whites in America is due to their different race which is a social difference. It
becomes a social division when, say, the income factor is also seen. The Blacks tend to be poor,
homeless and the Whites tend to be rich and educated. This creates a divide in the people
making them feel that they belong to different communities. Identity means a differentiating
factor in respect of religion, language or culture. People belonging to the same religion are
from different communities due to their different castes. Also, people from same family may
not keep close relations due to difference in their income-status. Thus, a person can belong to
different groups at the same time depending on the context that is used to classify them.
3.2 Overlapping and Cross-cutting differences
Social divisions of one kind or the other exist in most parts of the world. A social difference
means the difference in a group of people due to their race, religion, language or culture. It
becomes a social division when some social differences are joined by another set of social
differences. For example: the difference in the Blacks and the Whites in America is due to
their different race which is a social difference. It becomes a social division when, say, the
income factor is also added in that. The Blacks tense to be poor, homeless and the Whites tend
to be rich and educated. This creates a divide in the people making them feel that they belong
to different communities.
Cross-cutting differences happen when one type of social difference is weakened by another
set of social difference. Then it becomes difficult to group people into a single category because
they are going to have different opinions and views on different matters. One some matters
there might be agreement on a particular issue and on some matters there might be
disagreement on another issue.
Overlapping differences happen when one type of social difference is joined and further
reinforced by another set of social difference. It leads to further division in the society due to
multiple social differences.
For example: in Northern Ireland, people are mainly Christains but are divided as
Protestants and Catholics. Also, they are divided on the basis of class as the Catholics. Also,
they are divided on the basis of class as the Catholics tend to be poor and the Protestants tend
to be richer. This divides the society further by separating the two sets of people on the basis of
class and religion, However, in the Netherlands, the catholi3cs and the Protestants are equally
likely to be poor or rich. So, one set of social difference, one the basis of religion, is weakened
by another set of social difference, on the basis of class.
Overlapping social differences are difficult to handle as they create deep social divisions and
tensions. The probability of a social conflict is, thus, higher in case of overlapping social
differences than in cross-cutting social differences.
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3.3 Politics and social divisions in a society: In a democracy, there is generally
more than one party for elections. People have options at the time of voting and can choose and
party according to their wish. There is competition among the political parties to win the
elections and form the government. Political parties try to influence and impress the voters by
making promises and discussing their plans of growth for the country.
Since some or the other kind of social divisions exist in all societies, there is a probability that
the political parties might use these social divisions for their own benefit. They can favor a
particular social group by promising them growth in the future. This ensures them the votes
from such social group. This is very dangerous as it has the probability of creating conflicts in
the society. The social divisions might become political divisions and can lead to conflicts and
distrust in the society.
However, not all such associations are bad. The weaker social sections get together to voice
their opinion and get better opportunities in future which would help them grow.
3.4 Various factors that determine the outcomes of politics of social
divisions
3.5
In a democracy, there is competition among the political parties to win elections and form the
government. Political parties try to influence and impress the voters by making promises and
discussing their plans of growth for the country.
However, it is not necessary that such politics in social divisions will lead to conflicts in the
society. It depends on certain crucial factors that determine the outcome of politics in social
divisions. The three determinants are
(i)
People’s Perception: It is very important to see how people perceive their social
differences to be. If they perceive these identities to be exclusive to each other it shows
that they consider every social group as belonging to different community. It becomes
very difficult to accommodate them in a society. However, people can also perceive their
identities to be multiple and just part of the nation. The feeling of nationhood is supreme
over the social differences they have. In such a case, politics in social divisions is not
destructive. Rather, it helps to represent the weaker social groups in the political system.
(ii) Political Leader’s way of using the Social Divisions: The outcome of politics in
social divisions depends on how the political leaders raise the demands of different social
groups. If the process is peaceful and the demands are raised without undermining the
demands of other communities, there is no potential danger. However, if the demands of
one community are raised at the cost of ay other community, it can lead to conflicts in the
society.
(iii) Government’s Reaction to such Demands: The outcome of politics in social
divisions also depends on how the government responds to such demands of various
social groups. If the leaders are willing to accommodate these demands and willing to
share power with weaker social groups, the social divisions are not destructive in nature.
Thus, not all the outcomes of politics in social divisions are dangerous in nature. It
depends on the above mentioned factors and can be healthy also. It gives the socially
weaker sections the opportunity to voice their opinion and seek representation in the
governance of the country.
Civil rights movement in the USA: The African-American Civil Rights Movement
(1955-1968) refers to reform movement in the United States aimed at abolishing racial
discrimination against African- Americans (An African-American is a person in the United
States whose ancestors, fathers and forefathers, were born in Sub-Sahara Africa. A majority of
them were brought to North-America and Caribbean as slaves from 1565 to 1807 during the
trans-Atlantic slave trade).
In the years of the 19th century. Democratic-controlled states, mainly in the South, passed
racially discriminatory laws. These laws required or permitted acts of discrimination against
African Americans under the following four categories:
(1) Racial segregation
(2) Voter suppression
(3) Denial of economic opportunity or resources nationwide
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(4)
Private acts of violence and mass racial violence aimed at African Americans, which
were often encouraged and rarely hindered by government authorities.
3.6 Social divisions
(i)
Northern Ireland is part of the United Kingdom in the northeast of the island of
Ireland. It has been a center of bitter political and ethnic conflict for many years. On
ethnic grounds, its population is mainly Christian but divided into Catholic. On the
political front, the country is divided into two groups: the Nationalists and the
Unionists. The Nationalists are mainly Catholics and Unionists are represented by the
Protestants. In general, Nationalists want Northern Ireland to be unified with the Irish
republic, and the unionists want it to remain the part of the United Kingdom. The
unionists are in majority in Northern Ireland, though Nationalists represents a
significant minority. In general, Protestants consider themselves British and Catholics
see themselves as Irish. This fight between the Catholics and the Protestants has resulted
in the death of hundreds of civilians, military forces and security forces. However, since
the signing of the Belfast Agreement in 1998, many of the major paramilitary campaigns
have either been on ceasefire or have declared their war to be over.
(ii)
Yugoslavia was created after World-War I and was a complicated combination of
peoples, religions and cultures. Roman Catholic regions such as Slovenia (formerly
part of the Austrian Empire) and Croatia (formerly part of Hungary) were relatively
developed regions. They were joined with less developed and orthodox Eastern Serbia.
These regions were then joined with ever more poorly developed areas like Montenegro,
Macedonia, Kosovo and Bosnia-Herzegovina, which all have large Muslim and eastern
orthodox populations. After World war- II the nationalities of Yugoslavia sought more
autonomy from Belgrade (capital of Serbia)
Due to this competition on political as well as religious lines, there were conflicts and
tensions in the country. Yugoslavia was then divided into 6 republics and 2 provinces
with a collective, Federal Presidency. Each republic and province had a president and
representation in a Federal Assembly.
Q.
A.
What do you mean by the civil Rights Movement in the United States?
A set of events and reform movements aimed at abolishing legal racial discrimination against
Afro-Americans during 1954 -1968. Martin Luther King Jr. who practiced non-violent methods
of civil disobedience against racially discriminatory laws and practices, led it.
Q.
What were the consequences of Smith and Carlo’s action? Did they succeed in their
motive?
(a) The International Olympic Association punished smith and Carlos.
(b) They were held guilty of violating the Olympic spirit by making a political statement.
(c) Their medals were taken back. Back home, they were subjected to a lot of criticism.
(d) Peter Norman too suffered for his action and was not included in the Australian team
for the next Olympics.
Yes, they succeeded in their action to draw international attention to racial discrimination and
gained support for Civil Right movements in the U.S. Recently the San Jose State University,
of which Smith and Carlos were former students, honoured them. It installed their statues in
the University campus.
A.
Q.
A.
What do you mean by Black Power?
Black Power is a movement started by Afro Americans in USA to end the racial discrimination
in U.S. This movement emerged in 1966 and lasted till 1975. It was a more militant and
violent anti racist movement.
Q.
How is the homogenous society of Germany and Sweden undergoing rapid change?
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A.
Though once highly homogeneous, Germany and Sweden are undergoing rapid change with
influx of people from other parts of the world. Migrants bring with them their own culture and
tend to form a different social community. In this sense most countries of the world are multi
cultural.
Q.
A.
According to you, what should the Bulgarian Government do for the people of Romania?
(a) The government should ensure for the livelihood.
(b) It should provide education to all the people.
(c) The society should bring awareness to people to know their civil rights.
(d) It should make a programme to alleviate poverty
(e) The government should do the welfare work and socio economic development.
Q.
A.
Social difference units and also divides very different people. How?
Carlos, Smith and Norman were all athletes who stood against racial discrimination. Thus they
are united. Carlos and Smith are Afro Americans whereas Norman was white, a native of
Australia.
Q.
A.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of social diversities in a democracy?
Advantages
(a) The political expression in a democracy allows various disadvantaged and marginal
social groups to express their grievances and get the government to attend to these.
(b) Expression of various kinds of social divisions in politics often results in the canceling
out of one another and thus reducing their intensity. This leads to strengthening of a
democracy.
(c) People who feel marginalized, deprived and discriminated have to fight against the
injustices. Such a fight often takes the democratic path, voicing their demands in a
peaceful and constitutional manner and seeking a fare position through elections.
Disadvantages
(a)
Sometime social differences can take the form of unacceptable level of social inequality
and injustice. The struggle against such inequalities sometimes takes the path of
violence and defiance of state power.
(b)
The competition of political parties in a democracy tends to divide any society. If they
start competing in terms of some existing social divisions, it can make social divisions
into political divisions and lead to a conflict, violence or even disintegration of
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4. GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE
Three kinds of social differences, which bring about division and inequality in society are gender,
Religion & Caste refer to the fact of being male or female
4.1 GENDER
Females
833
:
:
Male
1000
Gender equity refers to a situation where male and female should be given equal rights. No
development is possible without equal participation of women. A woman should be given equal
social, political, cultural, economic and educational rights.
The gender division is not based on biology but on social expectations and stereo types.
Boys and girls are brought up to believe that the main responsibility of women is housework and
bringing up children. This is reflected in SEXUL DIVISION OF LABOUR in most families: women
do all work inside the home such as cooking, cleaning, washing clothes, tailoring, looking after
children, etc. and men do all the work outside the home. In villages, women fetch water, collect fuel
and work in the fields. In urban areas, poor women work as domestic helper in middle class homes,
while middle class women work in offices. Work of women is not valued and does not get recognition.
Role of women, especially in politics, is minimal in most societies. Earlier, only men were allowed to
vote and contest for public offices. Women in different part of the world organized and agitated for
equal rights. These agitations demanded enhancing the political and legal status of women and
improving their educational and carrier opportunities. More radical women’s movements aimed at
equality in personal and family life as well. These movements are called FEMINIST movements.
Political mobilization has helped to improve women’s role in public life. We now find women working
as scientists, doctors, engineers, lawyers, managers and college and university teachers which were
earlier not considered suitable for women. In our country, women still lag much behind men. Ours is
still a male dominated, PATRIARCHAL society. Women face disadvantage, in various ways
INDICATOR OF GENDER INEQUALITY
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
The literacy rate among women is only 54 per cent compared with 76 percent among men.
Smaller proportion of girl students go for higher studies.
Parents prefer to spend their resources for their boy’s education rather than spending equally
on their sons and daughters.
On an average an Indian women works one hour more than an average man every day. Yet
much of her work is not paid and there fore often not valued.
Inspite of the equal Wages Act in almost all area of work, women are paid less than men.
In may parts of India parents prefer to have sons and find ways to have the girl child aborted
before she is born?
There are reports of various kinds of harassment, exploitation and violence against women.
Many feminists and women’s movements conclude that unless women control power, their
problems will not get adequate attention.
In India, the proportion of women in legislature had been very low. In the government, cabinets
are largely all-male even when a woman become the Chief Minister or the Prime Minister.
METHODS TO COMBAT
1
2
3
Gender empowerment
One way to solve this problem is to make it legally binding to have a fair proportion of women
in the elected bodies.
One-third of seats in panchayats and municipalities-are now reserved for women.
Women’s organizations and activists have been demanding a reservation of at least one-third of
seats in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for women.
Gender division is an example that some form of social division needs to be expressed in
politics.
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RELIGION:- It forms yet another basis for social division. This social division becomes when
religion is expressed in politics by putting followers of one religion against followers of another –This
manner of using religion in politics is communal politics or communalism.
4.2 COMMUNALISM
It is derived from the word community. A group of people sharing a particular religion is called
community. When people fight in the name of religion is called communalism.
It means encouraging religious fundamentalism in order to divide the society on religious grounds. It
breeds hatred and social tensions. It is opposite to secularism.
Causes
1
British rule- they followed the policy of Divide and Rule.
2
Interference of Religion in Politics.
3
Communal media, Literature, Text book.
Evil effects
1
Fatal to National Unity and Social Harmony.
2
Organization of Political Parties on communal basis-Hindu Mahasabha, Akali Dal, D.M.K.
3
Voting of masses on communal basis.
4
Threat to democracy.
COMMUNALISM AND POLITICS
Ideas, ideals and values drawn from different religions can and perhaps should play a role in politics.
People should be able to express in politics their needs, interests and demands as a member of a
religious community. These political acts are not wrong as long as they treat every religion equally.
Communalism becomes more acute when religion is expressed in politics in exclusive and partisan
terms, when one religion and its followers are pitted against another. When beliefs of one religion
are presented as superior to those of other religions. This manner of using religion in politics is
communal politics.
Communal politics is based on the idea that religion is the principal basis of social community.
Communalism means the followers of a particular religion must belong to one community. Their
fundamental interests are the same. People who follow different religions cannot belong to the same
social community. It the followers of different religion have some commonalities these are superficial
and immaterial. In its extreme form communalism leds to the belief that people belonging to
different religions cannot live as equal citizens within one nation.
But this belief is fundamentally flawed. People of one religion do not have the same interests and
aspirations in every context. There are many voices inside every community.
Communalism can take various forms in politics:
1
2
3
4
Communalism involves religious prejudices, stereotypes of religious communities and belief in
the superiority of one’s religion over other religions.
A communal mind often leads to a quest for political dominance of one’s own religious
community. For those belonging to the minority community, it can take the form of a desire to
form a separate political unit.
Political mobilization on religious lines is another form of communalism. This involves the use of
sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeal and plain fear in order to bring the followers
of one religion together in the political arena.
Sometimes communalism leads to communal violence, riots and massacre.
Measures to Check, Communalism in the Constitution: Communalism is a major
challenge to democracy. The makers of our constitution chose the model of a secular state.
1
There is no official religion for our constitution does not give a special status to any
religion.
2
The constitution provides to all individual and communities freedom to profess, practice
and propagate any religion, or not to follow any.
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3
4
The constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.
Constitution allows the state to intervene in the matters of religion in order to ensure
equality.
Secularism is not just an ideology. This idea constitutes one of the foundations of our country
communalism is seen as a threat. That is why communalism needs to be combated.
Measures to Combat
1
2
3
4
5
6
Political parties based on religion should be banned.
Communal organizations should be liquefied.
Disputed places such as Ram Janam Bhoomi, Akshardham should be converted into
National monuments.
Religions should be separated from politics.
Inter community marriages should be encouraged.
Media should spread the ideas of religion tolerance and peace.
4.3 Caste and Politics
Caste and politics have both positive and the negative aspects.
Caste division is special to India. In most societies, occupations are passed on from one generation to
another. Caste system is an extreme form of this.
The hereditary occupational division was sanctioned by rituals. Members of the same caste group
practiced the same occupation, married within the caste group and did not eat with members from
other caste groups.
Caste system was based on discrimination against the ‘outcaste’ groups. They were subjected to the
inhuman practice of intouchability political leaders and social reformers like Jotiba Phule, Gnadhiji,
B.R.Ambedkar and Periyar Ramaswami Naicher advocated and worked to establish a society in
which caste inequalities are absent.
Caste system in modern India have undergone great changes due to
1
Economic development and large scale URBANISATION.
2
Growth of literacy and education
3
OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY
4
The weakening of the position of landlords in the villages. Due to the old nations of CASTE
HIERARCY are breaking down factors.
The constitution of India prohibited any caste-based discrimination and laid the foundation of
policies to reverse the injustices of the caste system.
Caste system has not disappeared from India:
1
2
3
4
Some of the older aspects of caste have persisted.
Even now most people marry within their own caste or tribe.
Un-touchability has not ended completely.
Effects of centuries of advantages and disadvantages continue to be felt today.
Casteism is rooted in the belief that caste is the sole basis of social community. According to
this way of thinking, people belonging to the same caste belong to a natural social community
and have the same interests which they do not share with anyone from another caste.
Caste can take various forms in politics:
1
2
3
Q.
A.
When parties choose candidates in elections, they keep in mind the caste composition of the
electorate and nominate candidates from different castes so as to get necessary support to win
elections.
Political parties make appeals to caste sentiment to muster support. Some political parties
favour some castes.
Universal adult franchise brought new consciousness among the people of castes that were
earlier treated as interior and low.
What is a patriarchal society?
A society that values men more and gives them power over women.
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Q.
A.
What is Caste hierarchy?
A ladder like formation in which all the caste groups are placed from the highest to the lowest
caste.
But elections are not all about caste:
1
No parliamentary constituency in the country has a clear majority of one single caste. So, every
candidate and party needs to win the confidence of more than one caste and community to win
elections.
No party wins the votes of all the voters of a caste or community. When people say that a caste is
a ‘vote bank’ of one party, it usually means that a large proportion of the voters from that caste
vote for that party.
Many political parties put up candidates from the same caste.
The ruling party and the sitting MP or MLA frequently lose elections in our country. That could
not have happened if all castes and communities were frozen in their political preferences.
Voters have strong attachment to political parties which is often stronger than their attachment
to their caste or community. Rich and Poor or men and women from the same caste often vote
very differently. People’s assessment of the performance of the government and the popularity
rating of the leaders also matter.
2
3
4
Caste also gets politicized
1
Each caste group tries to become bigger by incorporating within it neighbouring castes or
sub-castes which were earlier excluded from it.
Various caste groups are required to enter into a coalition with other castes or communities
and thus enter into a dialogue and negotiation.
New kinds of caste groups have come up in the political arena like ‘backward’ and ‘forward’
caste groups.
In some situations, expression of caste differences in politics gives many disadvantaged
communities the space to demand their share of power. E.g. Dalits and OBC have gained
better access to decision making.
Several political and non-political organizations have been demanding for an end to
discrimination against particular castes, for more dignity and more access to land, resources
and opportunities.
Religion, politics based on caste identity are not very healthy in a democracy. It can divert
attention from other pressing issues like poverty, development and corruption.
2
3
4
5
Casteism
Effect of Politics on Caste
(jktfufr esa tkfrokn)
1
2
3
4
Q.
A.
Politics has led to reservation of seats in
Parliament and has led Caste based
politics
People vote in the name of caste
Democratic facilities such as freedom of
speech press, expression are misused at
the time of election
Powerful emergence of Political elites
each as
Mayawati. Ram V. Paswan,
Mulayam Singh Yadav
Effect of Caste on Politics
(tkfr;ksa esa jktfufr)
1
It has led threat to National Unity and
spread hatred among various caste.
2
3
It has led to groupism on caste
It lead to violent activities.
4
It violates the
constitution
for
democratic system.
basic principal of
promoting
secular,
What is communalism?
The use of religion in politics where one religion is shown as superior to other religions is called
communal politics. Here, one religious group is against the other religious groups and demands
of one religious group are against the demands of other religious groups.
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Q.
A.
What are feminist movements?
Feminist Movement refer to more radical women’s movement that aimed at equality in family
and personal life.
Q.
A.
What do you understand by the term ‘Secular’?
Secular means being neutral on matters of belief and gives on special preference to any
religion. Secularism involves giving the freedom to people to follow the religions of their choice.
The state treats every religion equally.
Q.
A.
Discuss the gender issue with respect to politics.
Traditionally the work has been divided on the basis of the gender of the person. All the
household work was assigned to women of the family while all the income-earning work was
done by the male members of the family. A woman’s role outside her household has been very
limited and very minimal role especially in the politics. However, the gender issue has been
raised in the politics. Women in different parts of the world have fought for equal political
rights for women. These protests demanded equal educational and career opportunities,
extension of voting rights to women and improving the political and legal status of women.
Q.
What is the proportion of women in Indian legislature? What is done to promote it?
Or
What is the status of women’s representation in India’s legislative bodies?
In India the women’s participation in the political area is very low. The women strength in the
Lok Sabha is not even 10%. Their share in state assemblies is as low as 5%. The share of
women in India is behind those of several developing countries of Latin America and Africa.
One probable solution to increase the women participation in the political system is to make
legal laws for the minimum number of seats to be filled by the women candidates. In the
panchayats and municipalities it is legally binding to fill one-third of the seats by women
candidates. This has resulted in 10 lakh delected women representatives in the local
government bodies.
A.
Q.
A.
What were Gandhiji’s views on religion?
Gandhiji did not consider religion as Hinduism, Islam or Christianity. To him every religion
was based on some belief system supported by rituals. He tried to get rid of rituals as far as
possible. To him religions that the moral values drawn from all the religions should be used to
guide the political system.
Q.
A.
When does the communalism problem become acute?
Communalism means promoting ideas of a particular religion, it believes that people belonging
to one religion belong to one community. It becomes a problem when religion is seen as the
only identifying factor. It creates an acute problem when
(i)
Religion is used in politics as an exclusive factor where people belonging to different
religions are treated differently.
(ii)
Demands of one religion are against the demands of another religion and there is
feeling of distrust among the people of different religions.
(iii)
Beliefs and ideas of one religion are shown to be superior to the beliefs and ideas of
another religion.
(iv)
Various religious groups are in opposition to each other and the winning or defeat of a
particular group is associated with respective religion’s winning or defeat.
(v)
State power is used to show the domination of one religion as against the other
religion.
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Q.
A.
State two reasons to say that caste alone cannot determine election result in India.
Under the caste system, work is divided among people on the basis of their caste. Occupations
are passed from generation to generation. Every caste-group has exclusive occupations. In
politics, members of the same caste are believed to be from the same community.
In Politics special attention is given to the caste groups to gain their votes in the elections.
Candidates from major caste groups are chosen to ensure the support of their caste groups,
promises and appeals are made to various caste groups that their interests and demands
would be taken care of. However, politics is not only about the castes. Even though attention is
given to the caste groups, the political system is not all about the caste system. The reasons
are
1 No state legislature in the country has a majority or any caste group. Every caste group
has its presence in the parliament, it means that no caste group can be ignored and every
citizen’s vote is necessary to win the elections.
2 It is not necessary that people of the same caste vote for the same political party. They
have different demands and vote according to their choice. It means that no political party
represents only one caste.
3 It does not happen that there are candidates from every caste. It might happen that all
the candidates are from one caste. It might also happen that there are more than one
candidate from one caste and no candidate from the other caste.
Q.
A.
What is the rote of politics in caste?
Casteism believes that every caste is a separate social community. People from different castes
form different communities and they have different interests. There is politics in caste also.
People from various castes use various means to increase their dominance in their particular
region.
1 Every caste group tries to increase its members by including various sub-castes and
neighboring castes.
2 It is not necessary that people of the same caste vote for the same political party. They
have different demands and vote according to their choice. It means that no political party
represents only one caste.
3 It does not happen that there are candidates from every caste. It might happen that all the
candidates are from one caste. It might also happen that there are more than one
candidate from one caste and no candidate from the other caste.
Q.
What forms can communalism take in politics? Or State four different forms of communal
politics with example each.
Communalism means promoting the ideas of one religion within a particular group and
undermining the ideas of other religions. It becomes a problem when religion is used divide the
society. It believes that people belonging to different religions form different communities and
cannot live together as one nation.
Communalism can take various forms in politics.
1 The most common form of communalism is in everyday religious ideas of people. People
often believe that the ideas of their religions are superior t the ideas of other religions. The
ideas, ideals and interests of a particular religion are given more importance. The demands
of a religious group are against the demands of other religious groups.
2 People of a particular religion often want the maximum representation of their religion in
the politics. They want elected representative in the political system from their religion.
This often results in domination of those belonging to the majority community. People of
the minority community, then demand a separate state for themselves.
3 Communalism in politics sometimes takes the shape of political mobilization on communal
lines. It involves the use of sacred religious symbols and religious leaders to appeal to the
people of that religion. It attempts to bring all the people of one religion together. The
political leaders pay special attention to the demands of their own religion at the cost of the
other religions.
A.
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4
In its most ugly form, communalism leads to riots and violence. The people from various
religions are in opposition to each other and they use violence to show the domination of
their religion. People demands separate state for people of separate religions and it leads to
division of the country on the communal lines.
Q.
A.
What are the constitutional provision in India with respect to religion?
The partition of India and Pakistan was on communal lines. The people from different
religions demanded separates states from themselves. The makers of our constitution were
aware of this communal division. India has people from many religions. To counter any
problem of communalism, it followed the secular state model. Secular means being neutral to
various beliefs and no special provision is there for any religion. Secularism gives people the
freedom to follow any religion of their choice and treats every religion equally.
The constitutional provisions that make India a secular state are as follows:
1 There is no official religion of India. Every religion is given the same importance. Even
though Hindus constitute 80% of the population, all religions are treated equally by the
constitution.
2 The constitution gives freedom to people to follow any religion of their choice. People are
free to follow, preach and propagate the ideas of any religion they like.
3 The constitution does not allow any discrimination on the basis of religion.
4 The states have the powers, given by the constitution, to intervene in religious matters if
they threaten the peace of the state. They are allowed to intervene to ensure equality
among different religious communities.
Religion is not a threat to the country. But its activities have to be checked so that it does
not take any violent from. All the religions are equal and are treated equally by the
constitution. Any movement on religious lines has to be checked to ensure quality among
the religions.
Q.
A.
What factors have weakened the caste system?
Urbanization, education, growing literacy rates, Occupational mobility and the weakening of
position of landlords in the villages.
Q.
Describe national policy for empowerment of women (2001). What social indicators show
about the status of women in India today?
In 2001, the Indian government started the National Policy for empowerment of women. Its
main objectives were as follows:
(1) To create an environment in which women could develop their socio-economic
potential.
(2) To ensure enjoyment of human right and freedoms by women in social, cultural,
political and civil spheres.
(3) To provide women health care, education, employment opportunities, social security
and remuneration at part with men.
(4) To strengthen the legal system to ensure effective implementation of women-related
legislation. Social indicators of status of women in Present Day India:
(i)
Gender inequality still exists due to the prevalence of male dominating society.
(ii) Women are illiterate and are not aware about their property rights.
(iii) Laws in favour of women have loop holes.
(iv) There is bureaucratic apathy towards women equality.
A.
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5. POPULAR STRUGGLES AND MOVEMENTS
5.1 The indirect ways of influencing politics in a democracy is through pressure groups, interest
groups and movements
Pressure / Interest groups
Organization that attempt to influence government polices. But unlike political parties they do not
try to control or share political power.
Why are they formed?
They are formed when people with common occupation, interest, aspirations or opinions come
together to achieve a common objective
Interest Group
Sectional Interest Groups
They seek to promote the interest of a
particular section or group of society.
E.g. business associations, trade unions
etc
Aim:-Betterment and well being of their
members
Public Interest Groups
They represent some common or general
interest that needs to be defended.
E.g. the Bolivian organization FEDECOR,
which protested against water privatization
in Bolivia.
Aim:- To promote collective rather than
selected good.
5.2 Popular struggles in Nepal and Bolivia
(a) Movement for democracy in Nepal
Nepal witnessed on extraordinary popular movement in April 2004. Nepal won democracy in
1990. Although the king formally remained the head of the state, the real power was exercised
by popularly elected representatives. King Birendra, was killed in a mysterious massacre of the
royal family in 2001. Gyanendra, the new king of Nepal, was not prepared to accept democratic
rule February 2005, the king dismissed the then Primer Minister and dissolved the parliament.
The movement of April 2006 aimed a regaining popular control over the government from the
king.
All the major political parties in the parliament formed a Seven Party Alliance (SPA) and
called for a four day strike in Kathmandu, this protest soon turned into an indefinite strike in
which MAOIST and various other organizations joined hands. People defied curfew and took to
the streets. The number of protesters reached between three to five lakhs on 21 April they
served an ultimatum to the king. The leader rejected the half hearted concessions made by the
king. They struck to their demands for
(1) Restoration of parliament
(2) Power to an all –party government
(3) A new constituent assembly.
On 24 April 2004, the last day of the ultimatum, the king was forced to concede all the three
demands. The restored parliament met and passed laws taking away most of the powers of the king.
This struggle came to be known as Nepal’s Second Movement for democracy.
Popular struggles do not come to an end with the establishment of democracy. Popular struggles are
integral to the working of democracy.
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(b) Bolivia Water War
Bolivia is a poor country in Latin America. The World Bank pressurized the government to give
up its control of municipal water supply. The government sold these rights to a multi-national
company. The company immediately increased the price of water by four times. This led to a
spontaneous popular protest.
In January 2000, a new alliance of labour, human rights and community leaders organized a
successful four-day general strike in the city. The government agreed to negotiate and the
strike was called off. Yet nothing happened. The police resorted to brutal repression when the
agitation was started again in February. Another strike followed in April and the government
imposed martial law. But the power of the people forced the officials of the MNC to flee the city
and made the government concede to all the demands of the protesters. Water supply was
restored to the municipality at older rates. This came to be known as Bolivia’s water war.
Comparison between struggles in Nepal and Bolivia
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
The movement in Nepal was to establish democracy, while the struggle in Bolivia involved
claims on an elected, democratic government.
Struggle in Bolivia was about one specific policy, while the struggle in Nepal was about the
foundations of the country’s politics.
Both these are instances of political conflict that led to popular struggles.
In both cases the struggle involved mass mobilization.
Both instances involved critical role of political organizations.
5.3 Democracy and Popular Struggles
(1)
(2)
(3)
Democracy evolves through popular struggles. Defining moments of democracy usually
involve conflict between those groups who have exercised power and those who aspire for
a share in power. These moments come when the country is going through transition to
democracy expansion of democracy or deepening of democracy.
Democratic conflict is resolved through mass mobilization. Sometimes conflict is resolved
by using the existing institution. But when there is a deep dispute, resolution has to come
from the people.
These conflicts and mobilizations are based on new political organizations. Public
participation becomes effective with the help of organized politics. Such as political
parties, pressure groups and movement groups.
5.4 Mobilization and Organizations
Call for indefinite strike give by SPA Nepal, included some big parties that had some members
in the Parliament. But the protest was joined by the Napales Communist Party (Maoist) which
did not believe in parliamentary democracy.
The struggle involved many organizations other than political parties. Organization of the
people, teachers, lawyers and human rights groups.
The protest against water privatization in Bolivia was not led by any political party. It was led
by an organization called FEDECOR. This organization comprised of local professionals,
including engineers and environmentalists. They were supported by farmers, factory workers’
unions, middle class students and the city’s growing population of homeless street children.
The movement was supported by the Socialist Party.
We see that in a democracy several different kinds of organizations work behind any big
struggle. Organizations play a role in two ways.
(1) Influencing the decisions in a democracy by direct participation in competitive politics.
This is done by creating parties, contesting elections and forming governments.
(2) People can get governments to listen to their demands, by forming an organization and
undertaking activities to promote their interest or their viewpoint. These are called
interest groups or pressure groups.
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Pressure groups unlike political parties, do not aim to directly control or share political
power. These are formed when people with common occupation, interest, aspirations or
opinions come together in order to achieve a common objective.
Some people’s movement are Narmada Bachao Andolan, Movement for Right to
information. Anti-liquor Movement Women’s Movement, Environmental Movement,
Attempts are to influence politics rather than directly take part in electoral competition.
A movement’s decision making is more informal and flexible. They depend on
spontaneous mass participation.
5.5 Pressure groups and Movements
(a) Pressure groups:- These are formed when people with common occupation, interest,
aspiration or opinions come together to achieve a common objective.
Sectional interest groups and public interest groups
Interest groups promote the interest of a particular section or group of society.
Eg. Trade Unions, Business associations and professional bodies. They are sectional because
they represent a sectionof society.
Eg. Workers, employees, business persons, industrialists, followers of a religion, caste group
etc. Their principal concern is the betterment and well being of their members, not society in
general.
Sometimes they represent some common or general interest that needs to be defended.
Promotional groups or public interest groups. They aim to help groups other than their own
members. For example a group fighting against bonded labour. In some instances the members
of a public interest group may undertake activity that benefits them as well as others too.
Ex.:- BAMCEF (Backward and Minorities Community Employees Federation). It addresses the
problems of its members who suffer discrimination. Its principal concern is with social justice
and social equality for the entire society.
(b) Movements groups
The many forms of collective action of people on various issues to get governments to listen to
their demands or their point of view are called movements. E.g. Narmade Bachao Andolan.
Movement
Issue specific Movement – They seek to
achieve a single objective in a limited time
frame.
e.g. The Nepalese Movement for Democracy
General or Generic Movements. The seek to
achieve a broad goal in a long term.
E.g.The women’s movement, environmental
movement.
5.6(a) Pressure groups and movements exert influence on politics in a
variety of ways:
(1)
(2)
(3)
They try to gain public support and sympathy by organizing meetings. Filing petitions,
these groups try to influence the media.
They often organize protest activity like strikes or disrupting government programmes, to
force the government to take note of their demand.
Business groups often employ professional or sponsor expensive advertisements.
Most of the movement groups take a political stance without being a party. The
relationship between political parties and pressure groups can take different forms.
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5.6(b)
(1)
(2)
(3)
5.7(a)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
5.7(b)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Relationship between Political Parties and Pressure groups and
Movements:
Relationship between Political Parties and Pressure groups and Movements. Some
pressure groups are other formed or led by the leaders of political parties example, most
trade unions and students’ organizations are either affiliated to one or the other major
political party.
Sometimes political parties grow out of movements. For example, when the Assam
movement led by students against the ‘foreigners’ came to an end, it led to the formation
of the Asom Gana Parishad.
In most cases the relationship between parties and interest or movement groups, is not so
direct.
Disadvantage of Pressure Groups
Interest group promotes interest of one section but a democracy must look after the
interest of all.
Interest groups wield power with out responsibility but political parties have to face the
people in election.
These groups are not accountable to the people.
Pressure groups and movements may not get their funds and support from the peoples
pressure groups with small public support but lots of money and can high-jack public
discussion in favour of their narrow agenda.
Advantage
Pressure groups and movements have deepened democracy.
Putting pressure on the rulers is not an unhealthy activity in democracy.
Public interest groups and movements remind the government of the needs and concerns
of ordinary citizens.
Sectional interest groups play a valuable role. Because if one group brings pressure on
government to make policies in its favour, another will bring counter pressure not be
make policies in the way the first group desires.
Q.
A.
When and why did the movement for democracy break out in Nepal?
The movement for democracy in Nepal broke out in April 2006. The new king Gyanander the
successor of King Birendra was not prepared to accept democratic rule. He dismissed the Prime
Minister and dissolved the popularly elected parliament.
Q.
A.
What were the aims of the movement for democracy in Nepal?
(a) Restoring democracy
(b) Regaining popular control over the Government from the king.
Q.
A.
Name the type of government followed in Nepal in 1990.
(a) Type of government was constitutional monarchy-king formally remained the head of
the state.
(b) The real power was exercised by popular elected representatives.
Q.
A.
Bring out the difference between the popular struggles in Nepal and Bolivia.
1
2
Q.
Nepal
The movement in Nepal was to establish
Democracy.
Struggle in Nepal was about the
foundation of the country’s politics.
1
2
Boliva
Struggle in Bolivia
specific policy.
Struggle in Bolivia
specific policy.
was
about
one
was
about
one
What is pressure group? Give a few examples.
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A.
A pressure group is an organized or an unorganized body that promotes its particular interests
within a society. They exert influence of public officials and agencies for their interests. They
direct their efforts towards influencing the government policies and forming public opinion.
They do not aim to share the political power.
These organizations are formed by the people of common interests, occupations or ooinions
and work for the common objective.
Example:- Narmada Bacaho Andolan and movement for the right to information are few
examples of the pressure groups.
Q.
A.
What is the difference between a pressure group and a political party?
A pressure group is an organized or an unorganized body that seeks to promote its interests. It
is formed by the people of common interests, occupations and opinions. It aims to influence the
government policies and form the public opinion. It does not aim to directly control or share the
political power. It works for the common interest of the group alone.
A political party seeks to attain political power in the country by contesting the elections.
They have their own ideology and vision and represent various interests.
In what ways pressure groups and movements exert influence on politics?
A pressure group is an organized or an unorganized body that seeks to promote its interests of
a particular group of people. It is formed by the people of common interest, occupation and
opinions. It aims to influence the government policies and form the public opinion.
If influences politics in the following ways:
(1) The pressure groups conduct information campaigns to increase public awareness on a
particular issue. They organize meetings and influence the media by drawing the
attention to their issues. They try to gain public support for their cause.
(2) The pressure groups organize strikes and dharnas to voice their interests. They stop
the normal working of the governmental functions by strikes. This is done to show
their protest and dissatisfaction with the policy concerned.
What conclusions can be drawn from the two popular movements in Nepal and Bolivia?
The movement in Nepal was to re-establish democracy in the country. The movement in
Bolivia was against one-specific policy of the government. Both the movements saw people
coming to the streets to voice their demands. The public demonstration finally resulted in the
government agreeing to their demands. We can draw three conclusions from these two
examples:
(1)
Democracy means involvement of every citizen in the decision-making process. It is
possible that sometimes decisions are made through consensus and do not involve any
conflict. But sometimes decisions made are not in every body’s interest. Some people or
some groups might feel that a particular decision is against their interests. This
involves conflict between the groups. There is a conflict between those who are in
power and those who want to get power.
(2)
Most of the conflicts see mass mobilization. All the people come together to voice their
demands. Sometimes these conflicts are solved through existing parliament or the
judiciary. But when the conflict involves these existing parliaments or the judiciary,
the solution of the conflict comes from people themselves.
(3)
Some new political organizations get formed at the time of conflicts. There is
spontaneous public participation also, but the political organizations organize the
mass protest. These political organizations make the public protest more effective.
Is the influence of pressure groups in politics healthy?
A pressure group is an organized or an unorganized body that seeks to promote its interests. It
is formed by the people having common interest, occupation and opinions. It aims to influence
the government policies and form the public opinion. They do not aim to attain power in the
government. They just seek to promote their own interests. These interests can be of a specific
section of the society or of the whole society in general. It is argued that sectional interest
group is not good for the democracy. They promote only the interests of their section and ignore
the whole society in general. This gives more importance to that particular section of the
society. Also the pressure groups are not accountable to the people in general,. They are not
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
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Q.
A.
answerable to the general public for their actions and decisions. They can also influence public
opinion by spending a lot of money on advertising their idea. However, pressure groups are not
unhealthy for a democracy. They help the people of a particular section to voice their interests
and demands. It gives the people from the socially weaker sections of the society to raise their
issues and interests.
No one sectional group can put extra pressure on the government. If a particular sections
puts extra focus on only its interests, members of the other sectional groups can raise their
own demands. This helps in maintaining a balance between the demands of various groups
in the society.
Describe the role of Interest and pressure groups in a democracy.
Interest and Pressure Groups play an important role in a democracy. These roles can be
evaluated through the following points.
1
Pressure groups helps in formation of public opinion by creating awareness among
masses. For this, they make use of print and electronic media.
2
Pressure groups try to control the newspapers so that public opinion can be moulded
in their favour.
3
Pressure groups put pressure upon legislature to make laws in their favour.
4
Pressure groups create lobby among the ministers to get policies passed in their favour.
5
Pressure groups try to influence the bureaucrats by personal favours and bribes to get
decisions in their favour.
6
Though pressure groups do not participate directly in elections, it helps political parties
by giving donation or getting votes for them, so that parties make policies in their
gavour.
7
Pressure groups collect facts, stratify and publish them. This acts as the basis of policy
formulation by the government.
8
Pressure groups file Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in courts if they feel that the
government is working against public interest.
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6. POLITICAL PARTIES
6.1 Political parties are the most visible institutions in a democracy. For most ordinary citizens,
democracy is equal to political parties. Visibility does not mean popularity because most people
tend to be very critical of political parties. They tend to blame parties for all that is wrong with
our democracy and our political life.
There fore, it is natural to ask
(a) Do we need political parties at all?
(b) Why have political parties become so necessary in democracies all over the world?
A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in
the government. They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to
promote the collective good.
They seek to implement these policies by winning popular support through elections. Parties
reflect fundamental political divisions in a society. Parties thus involve PARTISANSHIP. Party
is known by which part it stands for, which policies it supports and whose interests it upholds.
A political party has three components
(a) The leaders
(b) The active members and
(c) The follows
Functions
Political Parties perform a series of functions:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Parties contest elections. In most democracies elections are fought mainly among the
candidates put up by political parties. Parties select their candidates in different ways. In
USA, members and supporters of a party choose its candidates. In India, top party leaders
choose candidates for contesting elections.
Parties put forward different policies and programmes. In a democracy, a large number of
similar opinion have to be grouped together to proved a direction in which policies can be
formulated by the governments. This what the parties do. A government is expected to base its
policies o the line taken by the RULING PARTY.
Parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country. Formally, laws are debated and
passed in the legislature. But since most of the members belong to party, they go by the
direction of the party leadership, irrespective of their personal opinions.
Parties form and run governments. Parties recruit leaders, train them and then make them
ministers to run the government in the way they want.
Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of opposition to the parties in power, by
voicing different views and criticizing government for its failures or wrong policies.
Parties shape public opinion. They raise and highlight issues. Parties launch movements for
the resolutions of problems faced by people.
Parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes implemented by
governments. Parties have to be responsive to people’s needs and demands. Otherwise people
can reject those parties in the next elections.
Necessity of Political Parties
Due to the emergence of representative democracies, Political parties fulfill the following needs.
(a) To gather different views on various issues and to present these to the government.
(b) To bring various representatives together to form a Responsible government.
(c) To support or restrain the government, make policies, justify or oppose them.
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6.2 The Party system in India:
India has a multi-party system. More than 750 parties are registered with the Election Commission
of India.
Type of Political Parties
1
In some countries only one party is allowed to control and run the government. These are
called one-party systems.
E.g. China, only the Communist Party is allowed to rule. People in China are free to form
political parties. It does not hold power because the electoral system does not permit free
competition for power.
2
In some countries, power usually changes between two main parties. Several other parties may
exist, contest elections and win a few seats in the national legislatures. But only the two main
parties have a serious chance of winning majority of seats to form government. Such a party
system is called two-party system.
Eg. The United States of America & The United Kingdom.
3
If several parties compete for power and more than two parties have a reasonable change of
coming to power either on their own strength or in alliance with others, we call it a multi-party
system.
Eg. India
When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for the purpose of contesting elections and
winning power, it is called an alliance or a front. The multi-party system often appears very messy
and leads to political instability. At the same time, this system allows a variety of interests and
opinions to enjoy political representation.
Which of these is better? Party system is not something any country can choose. If evolves over a
long time. Depending on the nature of society, its social and regional division, its history of politics
and its system of elections. Therefore each country develops party system that is conditioned by its
special circumstances. No system is ideal for all countries and all situations.
Democracies that follow a federal system all over the world tend to have two kinds of political
parties.
1
Parties that are present in only one of the federal units are called regional or state parties.
E.g. Telugu Desam Party, All India Anna DMK etc.
2
Parties that are present in several or all units of the federation. There are some countrywide
parties, which are called ‘National Parties’. These parties have their units in various states.
E.g. INC, BJP, BSP, CPI-M, CPI, NCP
National Parties:- Every party in the country has to register with the Election Commission.
Commission treats all parties equally; established parties are given a unique symbol. Only the
official candidates of that party can use that election symbol. Parties that get this privilege and some
other special facilities are ‘recognized’ by the Election Commission. That is why these parties are
called, ‘recognized political parties’. A party that secures at least 6 per cent of the total votes in
an election to the Legislative Assembly of a State and wins at least two seats is recognized as a state
party. A party that secures at least six percent of total votes in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly
elections in four States and wins at least four seats in the lok Sabha is recognized as a national
party.
There were six national recognized parties in the country in 2006.
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
1
2
3
4
5
One of the oldest parties of the world.
Founded in 1885.
Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, they party sought to build a modern secular
democratic republic in India.
Ruling party at the centre till 1977 and then from 1980 to 1989, After 1989 its support
declined.
A centrist party (neither rightist nor leftist) in its ideological orientation, the party favours
secularism and welfare of weaker sections and minorities. Supports new economic
reforms but with a human face.
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7
Currently leads the ruling United Progressive Alliance coalition government at the Center.
Party symbol is a palm of a hand.
BHARATIYA JANATA PARTY
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Founded in 1980 by reviving the Bharatiya Jana Sangh.
Wants to build a strong and modern India by drawing inspiration form India’s ancient culture
and values.
Cultural nationalism (Or ‘Hindutva’) is an important element.
Wants full territorial and political integration of Jammu and Kashmir with India.
Came to power in 1998 as the leader of the National Democratic Alliance including several
state and regional parties.
Wants uniform civil code for all people living in the country irrespective of religion and ban on
religious conversions.
Party symbol is Lotus.
BAHUJAN SAMAJ PARTY (BSP)
1
2
3
4
5
Formed in 1984 under the leadership of Kanshi Ram.
Seeks to represent and secure power for the Bahujan Samaj which includes the dalits,
adivasis, OBC’s and religious minorities.
Draws inspiration form the ideas and teachings of Sahu Maharaj, Mahatma Phule, Periyar
Ramaswami Naicker and Babasabeb.
It has its main base in the state of Uttar Pradesh and Substantial presence in neighbouring
states like Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarth, Uttarakhand, Delhi, and Punjab.
In the Lok Sabha elections held in 2004, it polled about 5 percent votes and secured 19 seats in
the Lok Sabha.
COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA- MARXIST (CPI-M)
1
2
3
4
5
Founded in 1964 Believes in Marxism-Leninism.
Supports socialism, secularism and democracy and opposes imperialism and communalism.
Enjoys strong support in West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, especially among the poor factory
workers, farmers, agricultural labourers and the intelligentsia.
Critical of the new economic policies that allow free flow of foreign capital and goods into the
country.
Currently supports the UPA government from outside without joining the government.
COMMUNIST PARTY OF INDIA (CPI)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Formed in 1925. Believes in Marxism-Leninism, secularism and democracy.
Opposed to the forces of secessionism and communalism.
Accepts parliamentary democracy as a means of promoting the interests of the working class,
farmers and the poor.
Became weak after the split in the party in 1964 that led to the formation of the CPI (M).
Significant presence in the states of Kerala, West Bengal, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu.
Advocates the coming together of all left parties to build a strong left front. Currently
supports UPA government from outside.
Party symbol sickle and sheaf of corn.
NATIONALIST CONGRESS PARTY(NCP)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Formed in 1999 following a split in the Congress party.
Favours democracy, Gandhian secularism, equity, social justice and federalism.
Wants that high officers in government be confined to natural born citizens of the country.
A major party in Maharashtra and has a significant presence in Meghalaya, Manipur and
Assam.
Since 2004, a member of the United Progressive Alliance.
Party symbol clock.
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State Parties:
Other than INC, BJP, CPI-M, CPI, NCP major parties of the country are classified by the Election
Commission as ‘State parties’ or as regional parties. Yet these parties need not be regional in their
ideology or outlook. Parties like the Samajwadi Party, Samata Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal have
national level political organization with units in several states. Parties like Biju Janata Dal, Sikkim
Democratic Front and Mizo National Front are conscious about their State identity.
The number and strength of regional parties has expanded. This made the Parliament of India
politically more and more diverse. No one national party is able to secure on its own a majority in
Lok Sabha. As a result, the national parties are compelled to form alliances with State parties. This
has contributed to the strengthening of federalism and democracy in our country.
6.3 Challenges to political parties
1
2
3
4
People blame parties for whatever is wrong with the working of democracy. Popular
dissatisfaction and criticism has focused on four problem areas in the working of political
parties.
Lack of Internal democracy:- Within parties in many political parties power in the hands of
one or few leaders of the top. Parties do not keep membership registers, do not hold
organizational registers, do not hold organizational meetings, Ordinary members do not get
sufficient information, do not have the means influence decisions. Science one or few leaders
exercise complete power those who disagree with the leadership find it difficult to continue in
the party. More than loyalty to party principles and policies, personal loyalty to the leader
becomes more important.
Dynastic succession:- Since most political parties do not practice open procedures for their
functioning, very few ordinary worker rise to the top: leaders favour people close to them or
even their family members. This is unfair to other members of that party. This is also bad for
democracy, since people who do not have adequate experience or popular support come to
occupy positions of power.
Growing role of money and muscle power:- Parties focus on winning elections. So, they
use shortcuts to win elections. They nominate those candidates who have or can raise lots of
money. Rich people and companies who give funds t the parties have an influence on the
policies and decisions of the party. Parties even support criminals who can win elections.
No meaningful choice to the voters:- There has been a decline in the ideological differences
among parties for example, the difference between the Labour Party and the Conservative
Party in Britain is very little. They agree on more fundamental aspects but differ only in
details on how policies are to be framed and implemented. Sometimes people cannot even elect
very different leaders either, because the same set of leader keep shifting from one party to
another.
6.4 Suggestions to reform political parties and its leaders
1
2
3
4
5
The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties.
Many elected representative were indulging in DEFECTION in order to become ministers or
for cash rewards. The law says that if any MLA or MP changes parties, he or she will lose seat
in the legislature, MPs and MLAs have to accept what ever the party leaders decide.
The Supreme Court passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals. Now, it is
mandatory for every candidate who contests elections to file an AFFIDAVIT give details of his
property and criminal case pending against him.
The Election Commission made it necessary for political parties to hold their organizational
elections and file their income tax returns.
A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties. Political parties
should maintain a register of its member, follow its own constitution, act as a judge in case of
party disputes, hold open elections to the highest posts.
It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, about
one-third, to women candidates.
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There should be state funding of elections. The government should give parties money to
support their elections expenses. This support could be given in kind: petrol, paper, telephone
etc. Or cash on the basis of the votes secured by the party in the last election.
These suggestions have not yet been accepted by political parties. Over-regulation of political
parties can be counter productive. This would force all parties to find ways to cheat the law.
6.5 There are two other ways in which political parties can be reformed:
1
2
People can put pressure on political parties, through petitions, publicity and agitations,
pressure groups movements and the media.
If political parties feel that they would lose public support by not taking up reforms. They
would become more serious about reforms. The quality of democracy depends on the degree of
public participation.
Q.
A.
How does the Party system of a country evolve or develop?
The party system of a country evolves over a long time, depending on the nature of society, its
social and regional divisions, its history of politics and its system of elections. Thus each
country develops a party system that is conditioned by its special circumstances.
Q.
A.
Why India has evolved a multi-party system?
India is a very large country. It takes more than two or three parties to absorb the social and
geographical diversity of the country.
Q.
A.
State the various functions political parties perform in a democracy.
The Political Parties perform the following functions in a democratic state.
1
To prepare their programmes:- Every party prepares its programme which
published during the elections campaign. It aims to turn the public opinion in its favour.
2
To mould public opinion:- The political parties, through the news papers, magazines,
dramas, public meetings, television etc, convey their views regarding the problems of the
people and try to mould the public opinion in their favour.
3
To fight elections:-Today, administration of the state is carried out by the
representatives elected by the people. The political parties contest elections and try to go
their candidates elected. A party which gets the majority of candidates elected forms the
government.
4
To give political education to the people:- the political parties educate the public in
political principles and keep alive the interest of the people in political matters.
5
To form government:- If a party succeeds in the elections and is voted to power, it
forms the government. In the Parliamentary form of government the leaders of the
majority party is appointed as the Prime Minister and the Prime minister constitutes
the council of ministers and runs the government.
6
Serve as link between the people and the government:- The opposition parties
conveys the weakness of the government to the people and make the government aware
of the problems of the people. It thus establishes a chain of relationship between the
government and the people.
7
To provide alternative government:- If the majority party loses majority in the
legislature, the oppositions is ready to form the government. Thus the parties help to
secure continuous and collective political responsibility. They prevent a break in the
Government of the country.
Q.
A.
What is Political Party?
According to Prof. Gettell, “A political party consists of a group of citizens, more or less
organized, who act as a political unit, and who by the use of their voting power, aim to control
the government and carry out their general policies”. On the basis of this definition we can say
that a political party is a voluntary association of those people who hold identical views on
certain issues, who have organized themselves and try to capture government machinery
through constitutional means in order to promote national interests.
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What are the characteristics of a political party?
The characteristics of political may be studies as under.
1
Similar political views:- The members of the party hold similar political views. This
keeps the members of the party united.
2
Fixed programme: Every political party prepare a programme which it aims to
implements after winning the majority in the elections. This programme is related to
political, economic, social and cultural development of the country.
3
Organization: A political Party cannot exist without organization. Any group of
citizens having same political views cannot be called a political party unless it
organizes itself. The members of the party must be bound by certain rules made by the
party.
4
Faith in constitutional methods: A political party must have faith in the
constitutional methods to capture power and the form the government.
5
Promotion of national interests: A political party must aim to promote national
interests. A group based on caste, religion, colour, or race cannot be called a political
party because it comes into existence to serve its narrow interests.
6
Aim to capture government power:- Every political party prepares a programme
which it aims to implement. But a political party cannot give a practical shape to it
until it holds the reins of the government in its hands. Every political party, therefore,
tries to come into power and form government.
Very Short Answer Type Questions
Q. Name the political parties which are personality oriented.
A.
These parties center around the charisma of their leaders. It may include Ram Vilas Paswan’s
Lok Janshakit Party and Mulayam Singh Yadva’s Samajvadi Party.
Q.
A.
Why India has evolved a multiparty system?
India has evolved a multiparty system because the social and geographical diversity in such a
large country is not easily absorbed by two or three parties.
Q.
A.
How political parties shape public opinion?
The political parties raise and highlight issues. Most of the parties have lakhs of members and
activists spread all over the country. Some pressure groups are also extensions of political
parties. They also influence different sections of the society. Parties often launch movements for
the resolution of the problems faced by the common people. Often public opinion is shaped on
the lines the parties take.
Q.
A.
Which political party is leading the U.P.A. coalition government at the centre?
The Indian National Congress emerged as the largest party with 145 members elected in the
Lok Sabha elections held in 1,2004. It now leads the ruling United Progressive Alliance
(U.P.A.) coalition government at the centre.
Q.
A.
In which states of the country, the Communist Party enjoys strong support.
The Communist Party of India (Marxist) enjoys strong support in West Bengal, Kerala and
Tripura, especially among the weaker sections of the society, factory workers, farmers,
agricultural labourers and intelligentsia.
Q.
A.
Name the leaders from whom the Bahujan Samaj party draws ideas and inspirations.
The BSP draws inspirations from the ideas and teachings of Sahu Mahraj, Mahatama Phule,
Periyar, Ramswami Naicker and Baba Saheb Bhim Rao Ambedkar.
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Q.
A.
What do you mean by Partisan and Partisanship?
We call a person partisan who is strongly committed to a party, group or a faction.
Partisanship is marked by a tendency in the part of an individual to take a side and is unable
to take a balanced view on any issue.
Short Answer Type Questions
Q.
A.
Classify political parties on the basis of numbers.
On the basis of numbers, party systems are classified into four types. These include.
1
One party system:- In this system, a single party mono-polices power.
2
Dominant Party System:- In this system though many parties exist; only one party
dominates the political system of the country due to strategic reasons.
3
Two Party System:- In this system, though many parties may exist, two parties at
comparable size get the major electoral support in the political system.
4
Multi-Party System:- In this system, more than two parties compete for power
resulting in the formation of coalition governments.
Q.
A.
What is the role of opposition in a democratic state?
Opposition parties are healthy for a democracy. They perform the following roles.
1
They keep a check on the totalitarianism of the government or the ruling party.
2
They provide an alternative government before the people.
3
they point out the fallacies of the government.
4
They criticize the omissions and lapses of the government.
5
They act as a shadow cabinet.
The role of opposition has been quite prominent especially with the emergence of a multiparty system of government in democracies like India.
Q.
A.
Discuss the role played by the regional or state parties in India during the last thirty years.
During the last three decades, regional or state parties have started playing a significant role
in Indian politics. These state parties have assumed power in many states and have been
demanding more regional autonomy. The emergence of regional parties has sent a fractured
mandate to the Lok Sabha from 1989 till data leading to formation of coalition at the center. It
has led to fulfillment of people’s needs as power has been decentralized, federalism has been
strengthened and regional aspiration of people have been fulfilled. However, it has even led to
political instability, encouragement to parochial tendencies, and lack of unity of governance.
This does not mean that regional parties are dangerous for a democracy. In fact, they are the
real representatives of people’s struggle for power and are lending credibility to the coalition
political system of India.
Q.
A.
Why can’t modern democracies exist without political parties?
If political parties do not exist, every candidate in the elections will be independent. No one
will be able to make any promises to the people about any major policy changes. The utility of
the government will remain uncertain. Elected representatives will be accountable to their
constituency but no one will be responsible for how the country runs.
Q.
“The rise of political parties is directly linked to the emergence of representative democracies”.
Explain.
Large scale societies need representative democracies. As societies become large and complex,
they also need some agencies to gather different views on various issues and to present these
to the government. They need some way to bring various representatives together so that a
responsible government can be formed. They need a mechanism to support or restrain the
government, make policies, justify or oppose them.
A.
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Q.
A.
What has contributed tot eh strengthening of federalism and democracy in India?
(i)
Over the last three decades the number and strength of the regional parties has
expanded. This has made the Parliament of India politically more and more diverse
(ii) No one National Party is able to secure its own majority in the Lok Sabha. As a result,
the national parties are compelled to form alliances with state parties.
(iii) Since 1996 every one of the state parties has got an opportunity to be a part of one or
the other national level coalition governments.
Q.
A.
Why can’t modern democracies exist without political parties?
If political parties do not exist, every candidate in the elections will be independent. No one will
be able to make any promises to the people about any major policy changes. The utility of the
government will remain uncertain. Elected representatives will be accountable to their
constituency but no one will be responsible for how the country runs.
Q.
“The rise of political parties is directly linked to the emergence of representative democracies”.
Explain.
Large scale societies need representative democracies. As societies become large and complex,
they also need some agencies to gather different views on various issues and to present these to
the government. They need some way to bring various representatives together so that a
responsible government can be formed. They need a mechanism to support or restrain the
government, make policies, justify or oppose them.
A.
Q.
A.
What has contributed to the strengthening of federalism and democracy in India?
(i)
Over the last three decades the number and strength of the regional parties has
expanded. This has made the Parliament of India politically more and more divers.
(ii) No one National party is able to secure its own majority in the Lok Sabha. As a result,
the national parties are compelled to form alliances with state parties.
(iii) Since 1996 every one of the state parties has got an opportunity to be a part of one or
the other national level coalition governments.
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7. OUTCOMES OF DEMOCRACY
7.1
(a) Democratic System and its Outcomes: In the democratic system, the people are the
ultimate source of power. They make use of their power through their representatives who
remain responsible to their electors. To identify the outcomes of the democratic system in a
country, we must know about its working there.
(b) Democratic System in India and the U.S.A: Indian and the U.S.A., both are the
leading democratic countries in the world. Both of these countries provide for periodic elections,
right to secret ballot, fundamental rights, civil liberties, political liberties and social justice.
People of both the countries are assured of security and dignity.
(c) Why democracy is better than other forms of government:
1
It promotes equality among the citizens.
2
Enhances the dignity of the individual.
3
Improves the quality of decision making.
4
Provides a good method to resolve conflicts.
5
Gives opportunity to correct mistakes.
Expected and actual outcomes of democracy in various respects
Quality
of
government
Economic well
being
Accommodation
of
Social diversities
7.2
Reduction of Inequality
and Poverty
Freedom and Dignity of
the citizens
What Democracy must Provide
7.2(a)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
7.2(b)
Accountability:- People must have the right to choose their rulers. They should have
control over the rulers. It produces a government that is accountable to the citizens. It
must be responsive to the needs, and expectations of the citizens. If it takes decision that
are not accepted by the people, it may face problems.
Legitimate Government:- It mans adoption of correct procedure for decision making.
Democracy produces a government which follows a correct procedure for taking a decision
so that it should be effective and acceptable to the people.
Follows Procedures:- The government develops mechanism to hold the government
accountable. To measure democracies, we look for practices and institutions like regular,
fair and free elections, open public debate on major policies, legislation and citizen’s right
to information about the government and its functioning. They ensure transparency in
decision making.
Economic outcomes of Democracy:- Democracy makes efforts to reduce
economic inequalities. But economic growth in democracy may be accompanied by
increased inequalities among the people. As democracies are based on political equality,
all the people have equal weight in electing representatives. They become equal in the
political arena. A small number of very rich enjoy a large share of wealth and incomes.
The poor have very little to depend upon. Their incomes have been declining and most of
them find it difficult to meet their basic needs of life, such as food, clothing, housing,
education and health. It has been found that in actual life, democracies are not very
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successful in reducing economic inequality in India. The poor constitute a large
proportion of our voters and no party likes to lose the votes. Yet democratically elected
governments have made no serious efforts to reduce poverty in the country. The situation
is much worse in other countries. In Bangladesh, more than half of its population is very
poor economic development depends upons several factors
(i)
Country’s population size
(ii) Global situation
(iii) Co-operation from other countries
(iv) Economic priorities adopted by the country
Between 1950 and 2000 data shows that dictatorship have slightly higher rate of
economic growth in comparison to democracies but the difference in poor countries under
dictatorship and democracies is negligible.
7.3(c)


Accommodation of Social Diversity:- The conflicts among the different groups
are inevitable. But this difference can be solved by evolving mechanisms to negotiate the
differences. Democracy is best suited to produce this outcome. But democracy must fulfill
two conditions to achieve this outcome.
1
Democracy is not simple rule by majority. The majority should work with the
minority so that governments function to represent the general view.
2
Rule by majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion,
race or linguistic group.
Sri Lanka has failed to fulfill these conditions and the conflict between the Government
dominated by the Sinhalese and the LITTE continues.
Dignity and freedom of the Citizens:- Democracy promotes dignity and freedom of
the individual. It has been achieved in various degrees in various democratic countries.
Democracy in India has strengthened the claims of backward classes and weaker sections of the
society. It has reduced much gender discrimination. It has also reduced, to a large extent the
caste based inequalities.
7.3(d)
Reduction of Inequality and Poverty:
Democracy is based on political equality but we find economic inequalities are growing.
Only a small number of rich enjoy a highly disproportionate share of wealth and income.
Many democracies have failed in the matter of poverty where the poor are in majority and
where developing countries are dependent on rich countries even for food supplies.
7.3(e)
7.4
Dignity and freedom of the citizens:
The passion for respect and freedom are the basis of democracy. Democracies throughout
the world have recognized this at least in principle. The degree of this varies in various
democracies, e.g. case of dignity of women, caste inequalities.
Outcome of Democracy:
A public expression of dissatisfaction with democracy shows the success of democracy. We
believe that our vote makes a difference to the way the government is run and to our own
self-interest. Democracy’s ability to generate its own support inspite of slow, less effective,
not always very responsive or clean is itself an outcome that cannot be ignored.
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7.5 Conclusion:
Democracy is better than dictatorship. Why?
Enhances the dignity of
individuals
Promotes equality
among citizens
Provides a method to
resolve conflict
Improves the quality of
decision making
Allows room to correct
mistakes
Q.
A.
Some people criticize democracy because it is not free from corruption. What is your view?
(i)
There is nothing to show that non-democratic government are less corrupt.
(ii) In democracy people can openly admit its evil and ask for its elimination.
Q.
Some people criticize democracy because it cannot solve all economic and social problems. Is it
justified?
(i)
No other form of government can solve all economic and social problems.
(ii) Democracy alone creates situations, which can help citizens to solve their social and
economic problems.
A.
Q.
A.
What are the demerits of democracy?
(i)
Slow and inefficient government when quick decisions are needed.
(ii) Lots of political parties create a situation for un-stable government.
(iii) Money and manpower plays an important role and some times work as a hindrance for
free and fair elections.
(iv) Democracy gives every individual the right to voice his concerns; as a result every body
focuses on personal interests and not the collective interest. This leads to incompetence
and wrong selection.
Q.
“To accommodate social diversities, democracy must fulfill some basic conditions.” Explain the
basic conditions.
(i)
Majority needs to work with the minority so that governments functions to represent
the general view.
(ii) Majority and minority opinion are not permanent.
(iii) Rule by majority does not become rule by majority community in terms of religion or
race or linguistic group.
(iv) Every citizen should have a chance of being in majority at some point of time.
A.
Q.
A.
List any four outcomes on which democracy has failed.
(i)
Reduction in corruption.
(ii) Non attentive to the needs of the people and often ignore the demand of a majority of
its population.
(iii) Economic growth and development.
(iv) Reduction of inequality and poverty.
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Q.
A.
What are the conditions under which democracy accommodate social divisions?
The conflict among the different groups are inevitable in a society. These social diversities can
be reconciled or accommodated by evolving mechanisms to negotiate the differences by
democratic methods. But democracy must fulfill two conditions to achieve an outcome. First,
democracy is not simple rule by a majority. The majority should work with the minority so
that governments function to represent the general view.
Second, the rule of majority does not become the rule by majority community in terms of
religion, race, language and groups.
Sri Lanka has failed to fulfill these conditions and the conflicts between the Sinhalese
dominated government and the LITTE continues.
Q.
“In actual life, democracies do not appear to be very successful in reducing economic
inequalities.” Explain by giving examples.
(i)
Democracy is not a guarantee for economic development of the country.
(ii) In most of the democracies, as small number of ultra rich enjoys a highly disproportionate
share of wealth and income.
(iii) Share of rich class is increasing, those who are at the bottom of the society have very little
to depend upon, find difficult to meet the basic needs of life.
(iv) In India and Bangladesh the poor constitute a large proportion of our voters and no party
will like to loose their votes. Yet the parties do not appear to be as keen on the question of
poverty.
(v) People in several poor countries are now dependent on rich countries even
A.
Q.
A.
Q.
A.
Give arguments to support or oppose the following assertions:
 Industrialized countries can afford democracy but the poor need dictatorship to become
rich.
 Democracy can’t reduce inequality of incomes between different citizens.
 Government in poor countries should spend less on poverty reduction, health and
education; and spend more on industries and infrastructure.
 In democracy, all citizens have one vote, which means that there is absence of any
domination and conflict.
1
Industrialized countries can afford democracy. But it is wrong to say that poor need
dictatorship to become rich. In most of the countries of despotic governments, the
condition of the poor remains miserable.
2
By introducing economic reforms, democracy can reduce inequality of incomes between
different citizens.. But in actual life, democracies do not appear to be very successful in
reducing economic inequalities.
3
The Governments in poor countries should spend more on poverty reduction, health, and
education. At the same time, it should also stand on the development of industries in an
infrastructure. It will increase the income of the country. This money can be spent on the
welfare of the poor.
4
One vote for all citizens in no guarantee for ending any discrimination and conflict. Many
other measures have to be taken to remove discrimination and conflict.
Identify the challenges to democracy in the following descriptions. Also suggest
policy/institutional mechanism to deepen democracy in the given situations.
 Following a High Court directive, a temple in Orissa that had separate entry doors for
dalits and non-dalits allowed entry for all from the same door.
 A large number of farmers are committing suicide in different states of India.
 Following allegation of killing of three civilians in Gondwana in a fake encounter by
Jammu and Kashmir police, an enquiry has been ordered.
1
It was unconstitutional to have separate entry doors for the Dalits and non-Dalits. This
discrimination was a challenge to democracy. So the Orissa High Court justly ordered
the concerned authorities to allow the Dalits as well as non-Dalits to enter the temple
through the same door.
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2
3
The indebtness and poverty of the farmers is a challenge to democracy. These causes
are responsible for the suicide of the farmers.
The killing of three civilians in Gondwana in a fake encounter by Jammu and Kashmir
police amount to murder of innocent people. The arbitrary actions of the government
servants are challenges to democracy. The accused policemen must be punished by the
law courts after a trial.
Short Answer type Questions
Q. Describe the positive achievements of democracy in India.
A.
Democracy in India has to a great extent met the expectations of the people. Its achievements
are as under.
(a) Indian people enjoy universal adult franchise and guaranteed fundamental rights.
(b) A large segment of population has improved its standard of living and become
educated.
(c) Agricultural, milk, industrial and electricity production has increased.
(d) Literacy rate has gone upto 65%.
(e) People have been able to choose their representative trough periodic elections.
(f)
Judiciary has defended the rights of citizens.
Q.
A.
Describe the failures of democracy in India. Or
What are the negative indicators of democracy in India?
The positive developments, not with standing the graph of democracy, has even presented a
bleak picture in India. The bleak picture of democracy can be known by the following.
(a) Though group rate has increased, yet about 50% children below 5 years are still
malnourished.
(b) A huge section of population is still living in abject poverty, illiteracy and
unemployment.
(c) More than 60% of the Indian people do not have access to education.
(d) Economic development has not been accompanied by institutional changes.
(e) About 35% of the Indian population still lives below poverty line.
(f)
Women representation in governance is not even 6%.
(g) Society is divided along casteist, communal, linguistic and regional lines.
(h) Politics has been criminalized.
Q.
A.
Some people criticize democracy because it is not free from corruption. What is your view?
(i)
There is nothing to show that non democratic government are less corrupt.
(ii) In democracy people can openly admit its evil and ask for its elimination.
Q.
Some people criticize democracy because it cannot solve all economic and social problems. Is it
justified?
(i)
No other form of government can solve all economic and social problems.
(ii) Democracy alone creates situations, which can help citizens to solve their social and
economic problems.
A.
Long Answer Type Questions
Q. “In actual life, democracies do not appear to be very successful in reducing economic
inequalities.” Explain by giving examples.
A.
(i)
Democracy is not a guarantee for economic development of the country.
(ii) In most of the democracies, a small number of ultra rich enjoys a highly
disproportionate share of wealth and income.
(iii) Share of rich class is increasing, those who are at the bottom of the society have very
little to depend upon, find difficult to meet the basic needs of life.
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(iv)
(v)
Q.
A.
In India and Bangladesh the poor constitute a large proportion of our voters and no
party will like to loose their votes. Yet the parties do not appear to be as keen on the
question of poverty.
People in several poor countries are now dependent on rich countries even for food
supplies.
How does democracy produce an accountable, responsive and legitimate government?
(i)
People have the right to choose their representative who would form the government
and have control over their representatives as they are answerable to the citizens for
the policies implemented. People participate in the decision making process either
directly or indirectly.
(ii) Some norms and procedures are followed while making the decision. People ensure
that the working of the government is transparent and the citizens have right to
information.
(iii) Democratic government is legitimate government. It is a government of the people, by the
people and for the people. Every body votes in the election and chooses their
representatives, it may be slow, less efficient, not always very responsive or clean but a
democratic government is people’s own government.
(iv) It produces a government that is accountable to the citizens and responsive to the needs
and expectations of the citizens. That is why the idea of democracy gets overwhelming
support all over the world.
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8. CHALLENGES TO DEMOCRACY
Democracy:- It is the dominant form of government in the contemporary world.
 Democracy does not have a challenger, but that does not mean that it does not have any
challenges.
8.1 Different Types of Challenges: Different countries face different kinds of challenges.
Some countries face the foundational challenge of making the transition of democracy and
establishing democratic governments. This involves bringing down the existing nondemocratic governments such as despotic, monarchic and military government or of
keeping military away from civil administration. The Challenge of expansion. It implies
the application of principle of democracy across all the regions, different social groups and
various institutions. Most countries like U.S. and India face this challenge. The challenge
of Deepening of Democracy; it is faced by every democracy in one form or another. It
involves the practices of democracy. This requires and attempt to bring down the control
and influence of the rich and powerful people in making governmental decision.
8.2 Challenges to some countries:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
China is such a country, where the communist party adopts economic reforms but
maintains monopoly of political power.
Pakistan; dominant control of the army over administration and allegations of fraud in
voters list.
Northern Ireland; the civil war has ended but Catholics and Protestants have yet to
develop mutual trust
Saudi Arabia; women are not allowed to take part in political affairs. No freedom of
religion to minorities.
Sri-Lanka; the peace talks between the government and the LITTE frequently
breakdown. Renewed violence.
Myanmar; Suu Kyi under house arrest. Army rule continues. It is getting global
acceptance.
8.3 Challenges to democracy in India
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Inequality
Poverty
Illiteracy
Regional imbalance
Separatism
Communalism
Casteism
Corruption
8.4 Different Types of challenges to democracy:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Constitutional designs or crisis.
Democratic rights.
Working of institution.
Free and fair elections.
Federalism Decentralization of
Accommodation of diverse people
Political organizations
8.5 Reform of political parties:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Carefully devised changes in law can help in checking wrong political practices and
encourage good ones. For instance, the Right to Information Act is good example of a
law that empowers the people to know what is happening in government and act as
watchdogs of democracy.
Political party should aim to strengthen democratic practices
Effective methods to implement reforms
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8.6 Reform proposals:
(1)
(2)
(3)
The financial account of every political party should be made public. Their accounts be
audited by the government auditors.
State should give financial help to the political parties to meet their elections expenses
Citizens should be encouraged to donate money to the political workers. Such donations
should be exempted from Income Tax.
Q.
A.
Give the definition of good democracy.
1
Democracy: In a good democracy, the citizens are enlightened. They are conscious of
their rights and duties. They actively participate in the periodic elections in the
country. They caste votes only to those candidates who are well-educated, honest and
look after the welfare of all the sections of the society: The state guarantees fundamental
rights to the people. There are less economic inequalities. The
government
makes
no
discrimination on
the basis of caste, race, religion etc. The
women enjoy equal rights
with men.
2
Features (Use only as many points as you want. Try to compress it in as few points as
possible)
(i)
Sovereignty of the people: In democracy, sovereignty rests with the people.
They are the source of power. The government is responsible to them
(ii) Liberty: Democracy is based on liberty of thought, expression and freedom of
association which are essential for the development of man.
(iii) Equality: It means the state shall make no description on the bases of caste,
colour, creed, sex, race etc.
(iv) Independent Judiciary: In order to protect the right of the people. Judiciary is
made independent. In can decide cases without any fear or pressure.
(v) Faith in the Constitutional means: Democracy believes in constitutional
method and government is changed not by violence but by constitutional and
peace full methods.
(vi) Rule of Law: Rule of law is one of the most important-bases of democracy. It
means that nobody is above law and there is one law for all. In case any body
violates the law of the land, he gets punishment.
(vii) Healthy public opinion: Healthy public opinion is essential for a good democracy.
In it, people are given all opportunities to express their opinions. The government gives
it due respect.
Q.
A.
Write down any five challenges to democracy.
The major challenges to democracy are
(1) Inequality –social and economic
(2)
(3) Communications
(5) Violence
Poverty
(4) Casteism
Q.
A.
Give one harmful effect of illiteracy on democracy.
If the people are illiterate, they cannot understand the value of their political right and duties
which weakens the basic structure of democracy.
Q.
A.
Why there is no real democracy in Pakistan.
In Pakistan, there is dominant control of the army on the government of the country. There are
allegations of frauds in the voter’s list.
Q.
A.
What is the meaning of economic democracy?
Economic democracy means that there is absence of economic inequalities, fulfillment of basic
needs of all the people and adequate opportunities of employment and equal pay for equal
work.
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Q.
A.
What is social democracy?
It means that there should be no discrimination in society on the bases of caste, religion, credd
and caste. It means equality before law and equal protection of law.
Q.
A.
Describe the various types of Democracy.
Democracy is of three types and is explained as follows:
1 Social Democracy: Social democracy means that there should be no discrimination in
society based on caste, colour, creed and religion. Social democracy means equality of
status, equality before law, equality of opportunity, educated citizens, end of
discrimination and equal access to all in social cultural and educational fields.
2 Economic Democracy: Economic democracy means that there is absence of economic
inequalities and fulfillment of basic needs of all people, fair and equitable distribution of
resources, adequate opportunities for employment and equal pay for equal work.
3 Political Democracy: Political democracy means that people enjoy political rights. They
have equal opportunity for participation in political affairs, and freedom of speech and
expression, thought and belief. It also includes respect for dissent and freedom of
participation in civil and political processes. Right to vote is available to all without any
discrimination on the basis of casts, colour, creed and religion.
Q.
A.
Describe the achievement to democracy in India.
The democratic system has been quite successful in India. Its major achievements are as
follows.
1 Indian people have been given universal adult franchise and guaranteed fundamental
rights.
2 Problems like poverty any illiteracy have been solved to a great points are not suitable in
the cower extent.
3 Agricultural production has increased.
4 Milk production has gone up.
5 Electricity production and industrial production has gone up.
6 India has made advance in software education and per capita income.
7 Cast discrimination and inequalities have been largely lowered.
8 Panchayati Raj contribute in social, economic and political equality.
Q.
A.
Describe the challenges of democracy in the modern times.
In contemporary political systems democracy is the buzzword. It is a system of government
where people get a choice to choose their representatives. However, in recent times the idea of
democracy has been shrinking. With the domination or monopolization of political power by
ruling elites, democracy at the global level has become a utopian idea.
Democracy in recent times is facing the following problems:
1 It has led to rise of religion based politics. Religious communities have been become vote –
banks.
2 It has divided the society in the name of caste. Caste-based politicization of society has
resulted in deep –rooted divisions in society.
3 Corruption has made the political system rotten.
4 Weak and divided political parties in democracies has led to multi-party coalition which
have weakened the structure of democratic government.
5 Defection on a large scale has shaken the faith of our people in democratic institutions.
6 The entry of criminals and anti-social elements in politics has led to rise of vested and
selfish political elites who use the politicians at their will.
7 Rise of agitations, naxalite movements and terrorist movements has deteriorated law and
order, which has shaken the faith of people in the democratic structure.
8 People representative ‘temple’ – the legislature is full of parliamentarians who are only
interested in making money at the cost of public interest.
9 It has led to growth of glaring socio-economic inequalities in society, which has led people
to loose faith in democracy.
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10 Persistent failure of governments to solve problems of poverty, unemployment, illiteracy,
communalism, separatism, terrorism and violence has shaken the faith of people in
democratic system of government.
The above mentioned points have helped in shrinking the idea of democracy as people are
losing faith in the system. People now think democracy to be a force a system where politicians
pursue their selfish and vested interests. It is a tool of politicians for playing gimmicks and
gambling.
Q.
A.
Describe the weaknesses of Indian Democracy.
In spite of certain achievements. Indian democracy has not been able to solve the problems
entirely. There have been shortcomings. These include the following.
1 Though GDP has increased about 50 per cent. Children below five years are still
malnourished.
2 People are still living in abject poverty, illiteracy and unemployment.
3 More than 60 per cent of Indian people do not have access to sanitation.
4 Economic development has not been accompanied by institutional changes.
5 About 35 percent of the Indian population still lives below the poverty line.
6 Women representation a n governance in not even 6 percent.
7 Socio-economic inequal ties continue to exist in society.
8 Society is divided along casteist, communal, linguistic and regional lines.
9 Politics has been criminalized. Use of money and muscle power has shaken the faith of
people in democracy.
10 Increasing corruption has shaken the faith of people in the political system. Democracy is
considered to be a means of making easy money at the world public welfare.
11 Wholesale and mercenary defection have made democracy a farce. Failure to evolve a
strong and effective opposition has led to complacency a Parliament.
Q.
A.
What steps should be taken to strengthen the democracy in India.
Democracy is facing a number of challenges. People consider it to be a force. However, we need
to strengthen and deepen democracy by taken the following steps:
1 Decentralization of authority should take place. Based on separation of powers, power
should be decentralized at the local level. It would make government more responsive to
the needs to the needs of people.
2 Political parties using casts, religion, violence and separatism as vote-bank factors should
be banned.
3 Right to information (RTI) Act should be strengthened so that the rule of law should be
implemented realistically.
4
People should always be alert to preserve their freedom. For this, it is essential to have
enlightened public opinion. Agencies like mass media, political parties. Educational
institutions and pressure groups should help in generation of public opinion. Curbs on any
agency would act as a hindrance in the development of sound public opinion which is
essential for the smooth functioning of democracy.
5 Mass media like TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, and journals should play an important
role in strengthening the freedom of people by spreading awareness and enlightenment
and keeping the government on toes by pointing out its loopholes.
6 People should be given a right to recall their representatives if they are not working in
public interest.
7 The term of parliamentary institutions should be fixed so that political instability does not
hinder development.
8 Women, Dalits and backward castes should be given adequate representation so that
communities receive adequate political say.
9 Election commission should be given more powers to make stringent laws banning parties
using money and muscle.
10 State funding elections should be started.
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11 The bureaucrats should be made more responsive to the needs of people.
12 Institutions of governance should be strengthened to reduce politics of expediency and
opportunism.
13 Citizens should become more active and enlightened to keep a vigil on the functioning of
democracy.
Q.
A.
What is ‘democracy reform’? Explain the guidelines of democracy reform or political
reform?
Proposals about overcoming various challenges to democracy are called democracy
reforms. Guidelines for democracy reforms are
 Political reforms can be done by legal lains.
 Any legal change must carefully look at what results it will have on politics.
 Democratic reforms are to be brought through political practice.
 Proposal for political reform should think that what is good solution and who will
implement it and how?
Poland- The foundational challenge: Poland became a democracy and Lech walsa its 1st
popularly elected president installed in the democratic government.
Ghana – Challenge of expansion: He promoted the concept of PAN africanism, living
standards of people improved. He deviated from the path of dimoor and major flow was absolute
power.
Myanmar:- Challenge of power in the form of military rule; power is in the hands of army and not
exercised by elected representatives. Freedom of speech and Expression do not exist.
International Organizations: Authoritarian: Being global/ international organization
do not function in a democratic manner. Though every member nation has 1 vote in UN General
Assembly yet all crucial decisions are taken by security council.
Mexico:- Deepening democracy: It takes measure to style the growth of opposition and
uses the underhand measures.
China:- Expansion of democracy: Here in China elections do not offer any choice to the
people. People had to vote for the ruling party and the candidates approved by it.
Pakistan: Challenge of muscle power: The work of civilian cabinet is supervised by a
“National Security Council” which is dominated by military officer.
Iraq:- Foundational Challenge: Iraq, Saddam Hussain, BA’TH Party leader, formed the
government. After becoming the president of Iraq in 1979 Saddam ran dictatorial government and
suppressed any decent or opposition to his rule.
South Africa:- Deepening of Democracy: In 1993, a democratic constitution was
established and a apartheid government ended giving way to the foundation of a multiracial
government.
US, Guantanamo Bay: Challenge to expansion of democracy and challenge
of muscle power: This involves the government of the country denying right to citizens of
another country.
Saudi Arabia: Deepening of democracy: People do not elect their rulers and have no say in
decision making.
Yugoslavia: Expansion of democracy: Political competition along religious and ethnic
lines lead to the disintegration of Yugoslavia in to six independent states.
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Belgium: Deepening democracy: leaders realized that the unity of the country is possible
only by respecting the feelings and interests of different communities. So mutually acceptable
arrangement of power sharing was made.
Sri-Lanka: Expansion of democracy: Sri-Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles
demanding an independent Tamils Elam against social discriminatory laws and practice.
US, Civil Right: Deepening democracy: The movement practiced non – violent methods
of disobedience against racial discriminatory laws and practices
Northern Ireland:: Expansion of Democracy: In Northern Ireland class and religion
over lap each other. This created the possibilities of deep social division and tension.
Nepal: The foundational challenge: Here the popular struggle was about the country’s
politics, that is the demand for restoration of parliament and power to all party government.
Bolivia: Challenge of Money Power: Bolivia’s popular struggle was about, specific policy
and claimed on an elected democratic government. The power of the people forced the officials of
MNC’s to free and made the government concede to all demands of the protesters.
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