ANALYSIS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL LOADS IMPOSED ON
PLAYERS WITHIN A TRAINING AND COMPETITIVE
ENVIRONMENT IN FOOTBALL
Table of Contents
Page Number
Acknowledgements
i
Abstract
ii
Chapter I- Introduction
1.1 Characteristics of Football
1
1.2 Elements of Training
1
1.3 Monitoring Heart Rate to establish Physiological Strain
2
1.4 Aims of the study
3
1.5 Hypotheses
4
Chapter II- Literature Review
2.1 Demands of the Game
5
2.2 Aerobic and Anaerobic Performance
8
2.3 Heart Rate Telemetry
9
2.4 Positional Differences
10
2.5 Standard of Play
11
2.6 Development of Heart Rate Telemetry
13
2.7 Comparisons between Training and Competition
15
2.8 Summary
17
Chapter III- Methodology
3.1 Study Design
18
3.2 Establishing Maximal Heart Rates
18
3.3 Participants
19
3.4 Analysis of First Two Training Sessions and Match
20
3.5 Development of Specific Training Session
21
3.6 Heart Rate Monitoring
21
3.7 Statistical Analysis
22
Chapter IV- Results
4.1 Comparisons at a High Intensity
23
4.2 Comparisons at a Low Intensity
24
4.3 Comparisons of Work Intensity at various Heart Rate Zones
24
4.4 Average Intensity for all Conditions Combined
25
Chapter V- Discussion
5.1 Introduction
26
5.2 Establishing Maximal Heart Rate
27
5.3 Competition and its affects on Heart Rate
27
5.4 Heart Rate Responses From Training
30
5.5 The Training Session Designed and its intentions
34
5.6 Comparisons of Training Session Designed and The Match
36
5.7 Limitations
37
5.8 Recommendations
38
VI- CONCLUSIONS
Conclusion
39
VII- REFERENCES
References
41
VIII- APPENDICES
List of Tables
Page Number
2.1 Motion Analysis of a Football Match
7
3.1 Table of Mean Physical Characteristic of the Participants
18
List of Figures
Page Number
Fig 2.1 Relative distances covered in different categories of activity for outfield
players during football match play.
6
Fig 2.2 Percentage of the individual maximal heart rate (HR max) attained by a
university player and a referee during a match.
12
Fig 3.1 Location of the heart rate monitor around the chest
22
Fig 4.1 Percentage of time spent within each intensity zone from performing the
training and match sessions.
23
Fig 4.2 Average percentage of time spent within each intensity zone throughout the
study.
25
Acknowledgements
I would like the opportunity to thank Michael Hughes for his expertise and continual
support throughout the course of this study.
I am also most grateful for the help given to me from the physiology laboratory
technician for his advice and guidance, alongside the supply of equipment needed to
conduct the study.
I would also like to thank Goytre football club, including their players, manager and
coach to allow me to conduct the study within their training and competitive
environment.
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to assess differences in heart rates between training
and competition within football. From this assessment a training session was
designed with the intention of eliciting a heart rate response that accurately reflected
competition.
Amateur football players (n=9) with (mean ± SD Age, 27.2 ± 4.6 years, height-1.80
± 0.06 metres, BM 82.89 ± 9.39 kg, and a maximal heart rate of 196 ± 8 b min-1).
Each participants heart rate was monitored during two training sessions, a match and
a training session that had been designed based on the inaccuracy between the
previous training and match performed, using heart rate telemetry equipment (Polar
team system Kempele, Finland) that recorded heart rate at 5s intervals.
Significant differences were found between all conditions above 80% HR max, with
the greatest proportion of time spent above that (35.61%) resulting from the match.
No significant differences were found below 80 % HR max between all conditions.
The modified training session more accurately represented the match at an intensity
above 90 % HR max when compared to the two previous training sessions.
The findings of this study show training at this amateur club did not reflect the game
monitored, which therefore needed a training session to be modified to simulate the
demands of the game more closely. The study also highlighting the predominant
aerobic nature of football, with a considerable amount of anaerobic energy
production encountered during competition.
I- INTRODUCTION
Introduction
1.1 Characteristics of Football
Association football is the most popular game in the world, characterised by periods
of moderate intensity activity, and rest, inter-spersed by brief periods of maximum
sprinting (Ekblom, 1986). Fitness for football is considered to be multivariate and
specific. Physiological attributes of fitness comprise cardiovascular endurance,
muscular strength, and flexibility; alongside psychological factors. The integration of
these attributes will allow a player to maintain a high work rate for the duration of a
match, reacting quickly and appropriately to situations, and also to maintain a mental
focus before and during the game (Reilly, 1996).
1.2. Elements of Training
To ensure that such components of fitness and skill are met, training or ‘practice’
must be carried out. Training is concerned with the balance between load and
loading capacity. Load is concerned with the body having to overcome a resistance,
while loading capacity regards the maximum resistance that the body can cope with
(Verheijan, 1998). To plan effective training sessions, components of performance
need to be trained in relation to specific populations and activities (Banister, 1991).
An understanding of the physiological requirements of the game can lead to the
development of specific training programmes to prepare the players for the demands
of the game (Capranica, 2001). Football players, therefore, require a high level of
fitness to manage the physical demands of the game. Coaches should ensure that any
regularly repeated exercise is relevant, and is based on match play that can transfer
effectively from practice to match situations. Due to the nature of football, training
should include changes in intensity similar to those encountered within a match, and
should include the use of a ball. This allows for technical and tactical skills to be
learnt under similar conditions encountered in a match. It also encourages greater
motivation to the players compared to training without the ball (Reilly, 1996).
1.3 Monitoring Heart Rate to establish Physiological Strain
The physiological strain of an activity can vary depending upon standard of
competition and actions involved within the activity. Within football, studies
conducted have used different measurements to analyse the physiological load upon
a player. Measurements include the total distance covered by a player, the speeds
that the player work’s at and the heart rate response of a player. This is known as
motion analysis. The heart rate response to exercise provides a useful global measure
of the exercise intensity (Spinks et. al, 2002) and can also provide a linear
relationship during steady state exercise between heart rate and Vo2, therefore
allowing calculations upon energy expenditure.
Mean heart rate during a game of football has been used as a measure of
physiological strain, despite the intermittent nature of the activity (Bangsbo, 1994;
Reilly, 1997). A recent study conducted by Bot and Holander (2000) however, found
high correlation’s between HR and Vo2 during interval testing, (r = 0.90 ± 0.07 and r
= 0.91 ± 0.06). This study concluding that energy expenditure could be estimated
from individual HR-Vo2 regression lines during non-steady state exercise, with
significant relationships being found.
Data collected from research conducted by Rhode and Espersen, (1988), found that
the heart rate response within training does not correspond with heart rates
encountered during a match. Within training, players worked on average of 73.9 %
heart rate maximum (HR max), while within a match, players worked on average
76.9 % HR max. This therefore reflects that training workloads do not reflect
workloads within a competitive environment.
1.4 Aims of the study
The aim of this study is to analyse heart rates within training sessions and a
competitive environment allowing comparisons to be made on the work rates of
players within the two different environments. Analysis of these two conditions will
allow a training session to be designed from them. This training session devised with
the intention of eliciting a heart rate response that is more similar to that which is
encountered within competition. A comparison can also be made between this study
and previous literature to identify what intensity is predominantly performed within
football.
1.5 Hypotheses
Null Hypothesis (H0) –
There will be no significant difference between heart rates encountered within
training sessions and a competitive match.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1) –
There will be a significant difference between heart rates encountered within training
sessions and a competitive match.
III- METHADOLOGY
Methodology
3.1 Study design
Analysis was performed upon nine participants within the 2004-2005 season within a
training and competitive environment. Prior to commencing this investigation
player’s age, weight (kg), height (m) and maximal heart rates needed to be recorded.
Each players height was measured upon a stadiometer (Holtain, UK), while the
players weight was measured using weighing scales (Seca 770, Germany) where
each participant were required to wear minimal clothing. Mean values for each
participant are shown within table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Table of Mean Physical Characteristics of the Participants
Age
(years)
27.2 ± 4.7
Height
(m)
Body Mass
(kg)
1.80 ± 0.06
82.9 ± 9.4
Maximal heart Rate
(beats/min)
196.6 ± 8
3.2 Establishing Maximal Heart Rate
To establish max HR of players, a maximal multi-stage shuttle run test (MMSRT)
was performed. This test involves players running between cones set twenty metres
apart. The running pace was set by audio signals emitted from a radio cassette
player. The running pace beginning at 8.0 km.h-1 and increasing by 0.5 km.h-1 every
minute. As the test progresses, interval’s between the bleeps become shorter, and
therefore the test becomes progressively more difficult. Participants were required to
perform the test until voluntary exhaustion, or until the subject did not reach the
cones in correspondence to the bleeps on three separate occasions. This test was
selected, as appropriate actions within the testing are similar to those that individuals
encounter within a football environment. This includes the participants performing
both aerobically and anaerobically, with sudden changes in direction once at the
cones. This test was performed on the same day within an indoor gymnasium, upon
wooden laminate floorboard, allowing for a stable environment for each participant.
3.3 Participants
For the purpose of this study, participants selected were associated to Goytre football
club. This club plays at an amateur level within a Welsh league in the
Monmouthshire region. The players selected to take part within this study played in
outfield-playing positions. The number of participants therefore allowed for the
majority of outfield-playing positions to be included within the study, which consists
of defenders, midfielders, and forwards. Considering demands placed upon
goalkeepers and the level that the club played at, collecting data for the goalkeeper’s
position was considered to prove inconclusive between the training and the
competitive environment. Each subject was informed of experimental protocols and
possible factors that were associated within the study before giving their informed
consent to participate. However, no information was given to them about possible
predictions of the study, this trying to reduce any effects upon the results.
3.4 Analysis of First Two Training Sessions and Match
The first part of this study was to record and analyse heart rates within two separate
training sessions (T1 and T2), and within a competitive environment (M1). The two
training sessions took place on an artificial grass surface. Participants were required
to wear the heart rate monitoring equipment for the duration of each training session,
and take part in the drills instructed to them by their coach.
During a competitive environment heart rate monitoring was performed during a
friendly match between Goytre football club and Merthyr Tydfil football club. This
friendly taking place on a regular sized grass playing surface. Recording heart rates
within a league match would have required permission. Permission would have
needed to be sought due to the intrusive nature of the heart rate recording. Playing
within a friendly match however reduces the risk of damage to the heart rate
monitoring equipment, which also allows for inaccuracies in recording to be
reduced. The friendly match however applied the same principles as a ‘traditional’
match, where it was eleven against eleven and consisted of two periods of 45minutes with an interval of 15-minutes.
Each subject involved within this study were required to wear the heart rate
monitoring equipment for the duration of the match that they were involved in. If the
players played for the whole duration of the match, participants were informed to
keep the heart rate monitors on throughout the half-time interval.
3.5 Development of Specific Training Session
The second part of the study is to design a training session (T3) to elicit a heart rate
response that is more similar to those that are produced within competition.
Development of this training session would consider the heart rate response of each
subject during the two training sessions, alongside the heart rate response of
participants from the match. The training session would also try to incorporate points
highlighted from various studies, such as changes in different directions (Yamanaka
et al, 1988), and working at different intensities (Shephard, 1999) to establish a heart
rate response that is more similar to competition.
3.6 Heart rate monitoring
For this study players wore heart rate monitors (Polar Team System, Kempele,
Finland), which measures and records heart rates. The apparatus is wireless, light
and portable and consists of a transmitter strap worn around the chest of the subject
(Figure 3A). Heart rates recorded at 5-second intervals allowing for all variations in
heart rates to be recorded. Data collected were downloaded upon a software package
(Polar precision performance Software version 3.0 for Windows 95, Kempele,
Finland) for analysis and comparisons to be made.
Figure 3.1 Location of the heart rate monitor around the chest
3.7 Statistical analysis
A repeated measure ANOVA analysis was used to determine differences between
conditions due to the within-subject design. Repeated measures ANOVA must meet
the assumption of sphericity, which demonstrates homogeneity of variance. If
statistical analysis proved significant differences a level of P<0.05 was used. This
value alone would only determine if a significance occurred among the groups. To
determine where significant differences occurred between the groups, a post hoc test
would need to be performed if sphericity was assumed. If sphericity were not
assumed, an adjustment would need to be made. This performed by using the
Greenhouse-Geisser adjustment (Vincent, 1999).
IV- RESULTS
Results
4.1 A Comparisons between conditions at a High Intensity
Subjects spent on average a greater proportion of their time (35.61%) performing at
an intensity above 80 % of max HR within M1. This in comparison to T1 21.94 %, T2
27.56 %, and T3 28.06 % (fig. 4.1). Significant differences (p= .013) were found,
Average % of time spent
in each intensity zone
when comparing all of the conditions at an intensity above 80 %.
40
30
20
10
0
30-39%
40-49% 50-59%
60-69%
70-79%
80-89%
90%+
Intensity zones as a % of max H R
Key
Average response from the first training session
Average response from training session two
Average response form the match
Average response from the designed training session
Figure 4.1 Percentage of time spent within each intensity zone from performing the
training and match sessions
A significant difference was found between T1 and M1, and T1 in comparison to T3
(p=.001 and p=.045 respectively). A significant difference was also found when
comparing M1 and T3 (p=.000).
4.2 A Comparison between conditions at Low Intensity
On average, the highest percentage of time spent below 80% max HR was within T1
(14.94 %). When comparing this to M1, subjects spent on average 8.99 % of their
time below 80 % HR max. Comparisons between all conditions below 80 % found
no significance (p=. 216).
4.3 A Comparison of work intensity at various HR zones
Comparing conditions at 90%+ max HR, a significant difference was found between
T1 and the M1, and between T1 and T3 (p=.008). No significant differences were
found between any of the conditions within the 80-89% intensity.
When comparing conditions at 70-79% intensity, a significant difference was found
between T1 with the M1 (p=. 023) and between T1 compared to T3 (p=. 006). Also at
this intensity, a significant difference was found between T2 compared with T3
(p=. 047). For all conditions below and within 60-69% there were significant
differences between T1 and the M1 (p=.025), while significant differences were also
found between T3 and the M1 (p=.039).
All of the conditions below 60 % HR max found no significant differences.
Average % of time spent
in each intensity zone
4.4 Average Intensity for all Conditions Combined
40
30
20
10
0
3039%
4049%
5059%
6069%
7079%
8089%
90%+
Intensity zones
Key
Average percentage of time spent within each intensity zone from training
Average percentage of time spent within each intensity zone from the match
Figure 4.2 Average percentage of time spent within each intensity zone throughout
the study
From performing throughout the whole of the study on average subjects spent the
highest amount of their time (30.44 %) between 80-89 % max HR, while spending
on average 26% of their time working within 90% of their HR max.
VI- CONCLUSION
Conclusion
This study has found that significant differences occur between a training and
competitive environment at an amateur standard of football. When competing within
a match, players spent a greater proportion of their time competing at an intensity
above 80 % HR max (35.61 %). This comparing to T1 (21.94 %), T2 (27.56 %) and
T3 (28.06 %), but no significant differences were found between them, at this high
intensity. Significant differences were however found between T1 and M1 (p=.001)
and T1 and T3 (p=.045) when comparing at an intensity below 80 % HR max.
The 80 % mark was selected to distinguish between high and low intensity due to
several articles finding that a typical HR response from the demands placed upon
players were found close to the 80 % HR max point (Smodlaka 1978, Van Gool
1988, Ekblom 1986).
Comparing between conditions at the same intensity found a significant difference
between T1 and M1 (p=.008) within a 90%+ HR max intensity zone. Between
70-79 % HR max significant differences were found between T1 and M1 (p=.023), T1
with T3 (p=.006) and T2 with T3 (p=.047). While between a 60-69 % HR intensity
zone, significant differences were found between T1 and M1 (p=.025) and T3 and M1
(p=.039).
These findings therefore allow the Ho hypothesis to be rejected, with the H1
hypothesis being accepted.
It can therefore be concluded that a typical amateur football training session was not
an accurate replication of the demands encountered during a game. This therefore
requires modifications within training sessions. This especially is the case if the team
only trains a couple of times a week.
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