The Battle of the Little Bighorn
An Internet Pathfinder – Robert Reisig – LIS 4361
The Purpose of this Pathfinder
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On June 25, 1876, Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer, commander of the
Seventh Cavalry, was finally near the Indians1 he had spent the last several weeks searching for.
They were encamped in a massive village near the Little Bighorn River in Montana.
Despite the advice of several of his Indian scouts that there were too many Indians in the
village for him to fight, Custer divided his small force of just a few hundred men into three
groups. He commanded the group that would attack the village from north of the river, while
another group, commanded by Major Marcus Reno, was to attack the Indians from the south.
Custer sent the third portion of his cavalry, commanded by Captain Frederick Benteen, on a
reconnaissance mission, in an effort to ensure that there were no other Indian villages in the area.
Reno attacked first and was quickly repulsed. He eventually retreated to an area of high
ground, effectively removing his command from the battle. Benteen, despite receiving direct
orders from Custer to “come on,” “big village,” “be quick,” “bring (ammunition) packs,” took
his time in responding and eventually joined his command with Reno’s, without ever making
contact again with Custer.
With Reno and Benteen out of action, the Indians, numbering in the thousands, were free
to concentrate all of their firepower on Custer. It did not take very long for them to destroy
Custer and his command, while Reno and Benteen, even though they had to have heard the
intense gun battle taking place and despite being only a fifteen minute ride away, never made
any move to relieve Custer.
After Custer’s force was destroyed, the Indians turned their attention on the RenoBenteen force. This force had the advantage of the high ground and of Benteen’s spirited
command of the defense, while Reno was essentially too intoxicated to be of any assistance,
despite his higher rank. In the end, luck played a role in the survival of these troops, because the
Indians, fearing the arrival of other Army elements known to be approaching, broke off the
attack, just as this surviving remnant of the Seventh was running out of ammunition.
The destruction of Custer’s force was a shock to the nation and a particularly difficult
blow given its timing, coming so near to the 100th anniversary of the country’s birth. While the
Indians won the battle, their victory would ensure their ultimate defeat by galvanizing national
attention on the conflict.
Apart from the issue of how to deal with the victorious Indians, the other major issue that
arose from the battle was how did it happen? How was an Army force commanded by the
country’s preeminent Indian fighter completely destroyed by what was widely perceived as a
band of savages? The fact that there were no white eyewitnesses to the destruction of Custer’s
force just heightened the attention these questions received.
The term “Indian” is used in this pathfinder to refer to Native Americans, as they were called at
the time of the battle. It is not intended as a disparaging term.
1
2
For these reasons, among others, the Battle of the Little Bighorn (also generally known as
Custer’s Last Stand) has become one of the most studied of all American military engagements.
This pathfinder is intended to provide a starting point to conduct research concerning this
most interesting battle and its participants. It is divided into the following sections: the
protagonists; the reasons for the conflict; the terrain; the battle; and the aftermath.
The Protagonists
The Indians
“When we were young, all we thought about was going to war with some other nation.” Chips
(Crazy Horse’s Mentor).2
The leading Indian fighters at the Battle of the Little Bighorn included Sitting Bull, the Sioux
Indian Chief and the spiritual leader of the combined tribes at the Indian village located by
Custer. Sitting Bull did not actually participate in the combat. Crazy Horse, Gall, Spotted Eagle,
and Low Dog were all Indian leaders who participated in the fighting.
The Web sites that follow provide information (and, sometimes, photographs) concerning the
lives of these leading Indian figures. Unfortunately, typically, not a great deal is known about
them.
Sitting Bull:
Chief Sitting Bull
http://www.sittingbull.org/
This site provides pertinent information and photographs of the Sioux Indian Chief. The site has
a number of relevant research links, but no advanced search feature. It is part of
virtualology.com’s virtual museum of history.
All of the section opening quotations are taken from Donovan’s work, which is listed in the
reference section of this pathfinder.
2
3
Crazy Horse:
Ta’ Shunke Witko (Crazy Horse)
http://www.indigenouspeople.net/crazyhor.htm
From the Indigenous People site. This site provides basic information concerning his life, along
with a purported photograph (no verified photographs of him are known to exist; he did not want
to be photographed). It has no search capabilities and few, if any, related research links.
Gall:
Gall’s Story of the Battle
http://www.astonisher.com/archives/museum/gall_little_big_horn.html
From the Astonisher site, which contains his version of the battle (in two linked articles), along
with a photograph of him. This site has no search feature but does have a number of
advertisements. It also has a significant amount of other material, related to the Indians and the
American West.
Spotted Eagle:
DLN Nation: Chiefs: Chief Spotted Eagle
http://www.dlncoalition.org/dln_nation/chief_spotted_eagle.htm
From the DLN Coalition. Spotted Eagle was Chief of the Sans Arc. This is a
Dakota/Lakota/Nakota Nation site. It contains a very brief account of some aspects of his life and
a single photograph of him. This is an Indian advocacy site and does have search capability,
using Freefind as its search engine.
Low Dog:
Chief Low Dog
http://www.indigenouspeople.net/lowdog.htm
Also from Indigenous People. Low Dog was an Oglala war chief. This site contains a photograph
of him and a short account of his life. It also contains a link to a PBS site concerning the
American West.
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The Officers of the Seventh Cavalry
“I expect to be in the field, in the summer [of 1876], with the 7th, and I think there will be lively
work for us.” George Armstrong Custer, Commanding General, Seventh Cavalry.
The leading officers of the Seventh Cavalry included: General Alfred Terry, Custer’s immediate
commander; Custer, of course; Major Reno; Captain Benteen; and Captain Thomas Custer, one
of four Custer family members killed at the battle (General Custer, Thomas Custer, Boston
Custer, all brothers, and General Custer’s nephew Autie Reed).
As might be expected, there is much more information concerning the lives of these officers of
the Seventh Calvary. Consequently, the Web sites noted generally contain a significant amount
of information and a number of photographs.
George Armstrong Custer:
George Armstrong Custer 1839-1876
http://www.georgearmstrongcuster.com/
Another part of virtualology.com’s virtual museum of history. As with their Sitting Bull site, this
section has a lengthy account of Custer’s life, along with a substantial number of related research
links.
General George A. Custer
http://www.garryowen.com/
Garry Owen, the name of this site, was one of Custer’s favorite songs and the Seventh’s
regimental marching song.3 Custer frequently brought a band with him while on his Army
exploits, so that they could play for him and for his men. This site is devoted to the General and
has a number of categories of pertinent information concerning him such as Custer Tributes, a
Photo Gallery, and a Native American section, among others. It also has links to Custer
organizations and research materials such as books.
George Armstrong Custer - Changing Views of an American Legend
http://www.historynet.com/george-armstrong-custer-changing-views-of-an-american-legend.htm
3
Garry Owen can be heard here: http://www.jspipesanddrums.com/music/Garryowen.htm.
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HistoryNet is a heavily advertised commercial site that “contains daily features, photo galleries
and over 5,000 articles originally published in our various magazines.” This particular section
consists of a multi-page article regarding Custer’s life. The site conveniently highlights search
terms and suggests possible related tags. It also has a search feature.
custerwest.org
http://www.custerwest.org/
Possibly the preeminent site dedicated to upholding Custer’s name and reputation. Relatively
sophisticated, in that it has versions in different languages and a continuous loop of scenes from
“Son of the Morning Star” is shown on the homepage. It claims to have 900 pages, input from 35
specialists, 340 videos, and 510 historical sources. It almost has too much material (commercial,
historical, and otherwise) regarding all things Custer. It is also heavily advertised and has many
suggested links and sources. Custer Lives (http://custerlives.com/) is a similar site, though not
nearly as voluminous.
General Alfred Terry:
Indian Fighters in the Old West
http://www.legendsofamerica.com/WE-IndianFighters2.html
From the Legends of America site. This site provides an account of Terry’s life, with a
photograph commonly associated with him. It is part of a section of the site called “Indian
Fighters in the Old West.” It has search capability and several related links.
Major Marcus Reno:
Major Marcus A. Reno
http://www.friendslittlebighorn.com/majormarcusreno.htm
This site, Friends of the Little Bighorn Battlefield, bills itself as the “next generation in the study
of Custer’s Last Stand.” This particular part of the site has a reprint of a lengthy article
concerning Reno’s actions at the Little Bighorn written by Lola Mauer. It also has links to the
site’s store, which has some interesting items.
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Captain Frederick Benteen:
Capt. F. Benteen
http://www.custerslaststand.org/source/benteen.html
As the name in the URL indicates, this site is dedicated to Custer’s Last Stand. This page has a
photograph of Benteen, with a corresponding story of his life. It also has links to Bighorn Days,
which is an annual reenactment that occurs at Hardin, Montana. Interestingly enough, apparently
many of the re-enactors are descendants of the Indians who scouted for Custer and of the settlers
who arrived later and stayed.
Benteen in Utah
http://historytogo.utah.gov/salt_lake_tribune/in_another_time/072097.html
Provides a favorable account of Captain Benteen, from Utah History to Go. Utah History to Go,
as might expected, is a site devoted to Utah history. It is sponsored by the State of Utah and has
many related links.
Captain Thomas Custer:
“Captain Thomas Ward Custer” Waymark
http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WM5HKD_Captain_Thomas_Ward_Custer
This is a GPS waymarking site and this page has the waymark for Captain Custer’s grave in
Kansas (he may or may not actually be buried there as he and the other officers were initially
interred in a common grave at the battlefield and it is uncertain whether his remains, and those of
the General, were subsequently properly exhumed) and an account of his life.
Custer, Thomas W.
http://www.cmohs.org/recipient-detail/324/custer-thomas-w.php
Part of the official Web site for the Congressional Medal of Honor and just a terrific site for
anyone interested in American military history. This part of the site has the military exploits that
earned Captain Custer two Medals of Honor, one of just nineteen double Medal of Honor
recipients. The rest of the site is easily searched and visually appealing.
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The Reasons for the Conflict
The Indians v. The U.S. Army
“The Game of War is carried on very much on the principle of ‘Blindman’s Buff.’ The Indians
can always, in summer, avoid a single column, or select their own time and place for meeting it.”
John Gibbon, Colonel, U.S. Army.
There were several reasons why Custer was ordered to find and return the Indians to their
reservations. The immediate reason was because they had left the reservations and were
threatening white settlers. However, the underlying reasons were more complicated. The United
States had a history of making treaties with the Indians for peace in return for land, and other
things, only to break them, while the expansion of white settlers continued ever westward. The
discovery of gold in the Black Hills, ironically verified by an Army expedition led by Custer,
was the proverbial “straw that broke the camel’s back” to many of the Indians that ended up
leaving the reservations and joining Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and the others in defying the U.S.
government. Dissatisfaction with reservation life was another reason. This series of events,
occurring over many years, culminated in the Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876.
The Web sites that follow provide information concerning the treaties between the U.S.
government and the Indians, as well as some materials related to the history of reservation life
and the ramifications of the discovery of gold in the Black Hills.
A History of Broken Promises (treaties between the U.S. and the Indians):
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Treaties Between the United States and Native Americans
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/ntreaty.asp
Yale University Law School’s Lillian Goldman Law Library developed the Avalon Project to
provide online documents in law, history, and diplomacy. This section of the site provides full
text documents of treaties between the U.S. government and the Indians, from 1778-1868. The
treaties are searchable by name and year.
Ruralfacts: A Brief History of U.S. Laws Applied to American Indians
http://rtc.ruralinstitute.umt.edu/Indian/Factsheets/AIDLHistory.htm
This site is part of the Rural Institute at the University of Montana. This section of the site
provides a “Brief History of U.S. Laws Applied to American Indians.” A link is also provided to
the American Indian Disability Technical Assistance Center.
Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties
http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/
A full text version of Charles J. Kappler’s classic 1904 work is available on this site by
Oklahoma State University. The site also has an introduction concerning the Kappler
(digitization) Project and information concerning the site background artwork (“Indians
Traveling,” by Brevet Brigadier General Seth Eastman (1808 - 1875)).
Treaties
http://www.puffin.creighton.edu/lakota/index_treaties.html
This is a collection of treaties between the United States and the Lakota and Dakota Indians,
sponsored by Creighton University. The treaties can be searched by name and are full text. The
site also has links to other Indian and American West related sites.
A Brief History of the Lakota People
http://faculty.normandale.edu/~physics/Hollabaugh/Lakota/BriefHistory.htm
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This Normandale Community College site provides this article, which covers the history of the
contentious relationship between the U.S. government and the Indians. The article also lists a
number of relevant references that are not linked.
Reservation Life:
Indian Reservation History
http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/tribes/reservations/rezhistory.htm
Access Genealogy is a genealogy site. This section of it is devoted to Native American
genealogy and includes a history of Indian reservations. The site is searchable by name and
locality. It also has links to information about Indian reservations for most of the states.
A History of Indian Policy
http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED092279
This article is provided by ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), “an online digital
library of education research and information” sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education.
This particular article, in PDF format, is by S. Lyman Tyler, from the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
ERIC is searchable in basic, advanced, and thesaurus modes.
Indian Reservations
http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=212639
History.Com is a commercial site devoted to history. This page has an encyclopedia entry
regarding the history of Indian reservations. The entire site is searchable and also has site
categories such as classroom, community, maps, etc.
Gold in the Black Hills:
Gold in the Black Hills
http://www.uic.edu/educ/bctpi/historyGIS/blackhills_1wk/bhcurriculum/blackhillsgold.html
This part of the University of Illinois-Chicago site consists of an outline of a course concerning
the discovery of gold in the Black Hills. It has a very thorough outline of the discovery and the
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issues and consequences arising from it. Links are provided to Web sites containing other
relevant material.
Western Frontier Life in America
http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/slatta/cowboys/essays/front_life2.htm
An essay titled “Western frontier life in America,” authored by NCSU (North Carolina State
University) faculty members for the World Book Online Reference Center, is the relevant part of
this site. The essay chronicles much of the white-Indian conflict and has a section on the
ramifications on the conflict of the discovery of gold in the Black Hills of South Dakota.
The American Indian in the Great War: Real and Imagined
http://net.lib.byu.edu/estu/wwi/comment/Cmrts/Cmrt2.html
This article, written by Diane Camurat, is provided on this Brigham Young University site. The
chapters relating to American Indian affairs before the Great War are most pertinent here and
provide an excellent overview of the many problems that led to the Indian revolt of 1876,
including the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, the poor quality of reservation life, and the
series of broken treaties by the U.S. government. Links are provided to the footnotes in the
article but no links are provided to the references themselves. An e-mail link is provided to
contact the author.
Exploration and Development History on the Pine Ridge Reservation
http://serc.carleton.edu/research_education/nativelands/pineridge/explorationanddevelopment.ht
ml
This Carleton Community College site has a case study, written by an undergraduate student,
concerning the exploration of the Black Hills. It is quite brief but has a couple of interesting
photographs and links to other related topics. It is part of the Carleton site devoted to impacts on
native lands.
The Terrain
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The Bighorn Valley - Montana
“I have seen the wonders of the Spirit Land, and have talked with the ghosts.” Kicking Bear
(Minneconjou).
Much of the outcome of the Battle of the Little Bighorn was a result of the natural terrain
features of the land where the battle was fought. Custer, while awaiting the eminent arrival (he
thought) of Benteen, was forced to defend ground that was not suitable for a defense. Reno, in
the meantime, had managed to retreat so far that he was able to mount a defense from some high
bluffs that provided a good defensive position. The terrain was also sufficiently vast that Custer
believed it necessary to let Benteen conduct a reconnaissance of the surrounding area, in an
effort to ensure that there were no other Indian villages in the area that he could not see. He
probably did this because he had previously been involved in an engagement with the Indians
where he routed one Indian village, while unaware of the existence of another village nearby. His
lack of knowledge of this village resulted in the annihilation of a portion of his force.
The following Web sites provide maps and photographs that help to visualize the unique
character of the terrain in this part of Montana.
Little Bighorn Photo Gallery
http://www.mohicanpress.com/battles/ba04002.html
The Little Bighorn Photo Gallery is featured on this Mohican Press site. The gallery contains
several photographs of the battlefield, noting the terrain features and tactical positions. Other
photographs include those of officers of the Seventh Cavalry (including General Custer and his
brother Thomas, Reno, and Benteen) and several leading Indians at the battle (including Custer’s
Crow scouts, Sitting Bull, Gall, and Low Dog). There are links to other Little Bighorn related
sites.
Little Bighorn Map (1876)
http://www.mapcruzin.com/download-national-park-maps/littlebighorn_1876_99.pdf
A map, provided by the MapCruzin site, of the movements of Custer, Terry, and related Army
forces is found at this site. The map does not provide detailed movements of Custer and his
subordinates at the battle but, rather, provides more of an overview of the entire campaign.
MapCruzin is said to be an independent firm specializing in innovative GIS projects. Its site is
searchable and has a substantial number of (free) maps available, regarding a variety of subject
areas.
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Battle of Little Bighorn (Patterson’s Little Bighorn Map)
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trm163.html
This site includes a drawing provided courtesy of the Library of Congress, as part of their
American Treasures series. The drawing is a copy of a map drawn by Lt. Robert Patterson, who
was a member of General Terry’s staff, soon after the battle occurred, along with an
accompanying letter to his wife. The American Treasures series consists of documents that the
Library of Congress considers as having special historical significance. The physical exhibit
closed in 2007 but the online exhibit is said to be permanent. It is searchable.
Campaign Maps - Little Bighorn Battlefield
http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/hh/1b/hh1l1.htm
Three battlefield maps are provided by the National Park Service, along with some other
information concerning the battle (including Low Dog’s and Gall’s accounts of the battle, an
account of Reno’s actions, and a very interesting photo essay of “Custer’s Last Campaign.”).
Map One shows the overall campaign movements of the Army looking for the Indians who left
the reservations in 1876. Map Two illustrates Custer’s division of his command, at the
commencement of the battle. Map Three shows the last stages of the battle. These are part of a
pamphlet that the Park Service has placed online, called “Custer Battlefield: National Monument
Montana,” by Robert M. Utley. It is part of the Park Service’s Historical Handbook Series. The
pamphlet also provides a detailed account of the circumstances of the battle, as noted later in this
pathfinder.
Map – The Battle of Little Bighorn, 1876
http://etc.usf.edu/maps/pages/5000/5060/5060.htm
A map of the battle copied from an 1881 map, from Maps ETC. Not detailed, as far as the battle
itself goes, but provides an overview of the area, with the location of nearby Army posts, at the
time. Maps ETC is said to be an online service of Florida’s Educational Technology
Clearinghouse. 5000 maps are available, under a licensing provision that allows a substantial
number of them to be used, without further permission, for non-commercial purposes. The maps
can be browsed by geographic region or the database can be searched.
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The Battle
“We scouts thought there were too many Indians for Custer to fight . . . It was the biggest Indian
camp I had ever seen.” White Man Runs Him (Crow Scout).
“We circled all around them, swirling like water around a stone.” Two Moon (Cheyenne).
As previously mentioned, one of the reasons for the intense historical interest in the Battle of the
Little Bighorn was the fact that there no surviving white eyewitnesses. This led to a great deal of
speculation about what actually happened.
The Web sites that follow provide information concerning the battle from the perspective of
Indian eyewitnesses and the more speculative accounts (at least concerning what happened to
Custer and his men) of whites. There are also sites listed that provide some information
concerning another of the more intriguing controversies of the battle: were the Indians better
armed than the Army to fight the battle?
Custer’s Last Stand: A History in Photographs
http://www.friendslittlebighorn.com/custerslaststand.htm
Bob Reece has created a “History in Photographs” of the battle which is found on the Friends of
the Little Bighorn Battlefield site. The chronology of the battle is followed in detail with
accompanying photographs. The Friends of the Little Bighorn is a nonprofit group organized in
an effort to raise money for management programs and objectives for the Little Bighorn
Battlefield National Monument. The site is searchable and has numerous related links.
Utley’s Pamphlet on Custer Battlefield National Monument Montana
http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/hh/1b/index.htm
Complete contents of Robert M. Utley’s 1969 pamphlet concerning the battle are provided
online, by the National Park Service, as previously noted. This is part of the Park Service’s
Historical Handbook Series (No. 1). Illustrations are also provided, including the original cover
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illustration for the 1969 edition. Utley’s pamphlet is divided into: Campaign of 1876; Indian
Movements; Plan of Action; March to the Little Bighorn; Reno Attacks; The Annihilation of
Custer; Reno Besieged; Rescue; Collapse of the Sioux; Custer Battlefield Today; and Campaign
Maps (noted previously above; along with appendix information).
Little Bighorn Battlefield – National Monument, Montana
http://www.nps.gov/libi/index.htm
The National Park Service’s site concerning the Little Bighorn Battlefield. The site is searchable
and also contains links for visiting the battlefield, history and culture, photos and multimedia,
etc. The site also provides a detailed account of the battle:
(http://www.nps.gov/libi/historyculture/the-battle-of-the-little-bighorn.htm).
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, 1876
http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/custer.htm
This commercial site, EyeWitness to History, has an account of the battle that is a good starting
place for the younger reader to begin researching. Photographs and maps are included with the
chronology of the battle. The site is searchable and includes links to other historical topics,
including Old West topics. While it is a commercial site, the advertising is more limited than that
seen on some other commercial sites.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn – An Eyewitness Account by the Lakota Chief Red Horse
http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/six/bighorn.htm
PBS has an account of the battle, as it was experienced by Red Cloud, a Lakota Chief who
participated in it. No photographs or maps are included. It is part of the network’s Archive of the
West series.
A Cheyenne Woman’s Account of the Battle of the Little Bighorn
http://truewest.ning.com/profiles/blogs/a-cheyenne-womans-account-of
An Indian woman’s account of the battle was written down in 1921 and is recounted in this
article, from the True West Magazine site. True West Magazine claims to “present the American
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West.” It is a commercial site, but does not have very many ads. It has categories such as travel,
history, preservation, etc. and is searchable.
Battle of Little Bighorn Coverup
http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-little-bighorn-coverup.htm
This part of HistoryNet’s commercial and heavily advertised site, promotes the viewpoint that
the true account of the battle was covered up, by supporters of Reno and Benteen. Related tags
are provided, as well as related articles. A comments section is also available and appears to be
often used. Another section of the site investigates whether Custer and his men were destroyed
because they were outgunned by the Indians: http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-little-bighornwere-the-weapons-the-deciding-factor.htm.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn in Six Minutes
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D_xHGobzLms
A six minute account of the battle, available on YouTube. It is a combination of text and video
that attempts to recount the highlights of the battle. The video portions appear to have been taken
from the 1991 television movie “Son of the Morning Star,” starring Gary Cole, concerning the
battle. Other scenes from that movie are also available on YouTube
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cHslWqUegtc). YouTube is a searchable video site that can
also be browsed by categories.
Custer’s Last Stand
http://www.sonofthesouth.net/union-generals/custer/custers-last-stand.htm
A comprehensive overview of the battle is provided, at this Son of the South military history site,
along with numerous photographs, and the underlying reasons for it. Links to related topics are
included, including many other topics concerning General Custer. One of these is a copy of an
article from Harper’s Weekly, dated October 27, 1877, covering Custer’s re-internment at West
Point (http://www.sonofthesouth.net/union-generals/custer/custer-funeral-grave.htm). Whether
these remains are actually Custer’s is open to speculation, due to the haphazard nature of his
initial interment and subsequent exhumation.
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Today in History: June 25: Custer’s Last Stand
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun25.html
From the Library of Congress and its American Memory series. This has a very general overview
of the battle, the reasons for it, and its impact on the Indians. More importantly, links are
provided to some significant historical materials such as music inspired by Custer’s defeat.
Little Bighorn History Alliance Message Board
http://lbha.proboards.com/index.cgi
This is a message board regarding the battle. It has categories for people to obtain information
about the circumstances of the battle, its participants, related books and articles, etc. It appears to
be frequently used and is searchable. It is sponsored by the Little Bighorn History Alliance
(http://lbha.org/), which also has a site worth visiting that has some commonly and not so
commonly known information concerning the battle and its participants. Registration is required
before posting comments or questions.
The Aftermath
“The men expected orders every minute to march toward the firing.” Sgt. Stanislas Roy (Seventh
Cavalry survivor of the Reno-Benteen defense).
After the destruction of Custer’s force, efforts to find fault started nearly immediately. The Web
sites that follow provide information concerning who was to blame: Custer, Reno, Benteen,
Terry, etc. Special attention is given to material related to the Reno military inquiry (bearing in
mind that many scholars believe that the inquiry was a white wash and that Reno, who surely
acted with a combination of cowardice, incompetence, and intoxication during the battle
managed to pull off an escape from events that Custer could not). Special attention is also given
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to the archaeological efforts of Professor Richard Fox, of the University of Oklahoma. His
efforts, and those of his team, provide what is likely the most plausible explanation of what
actually occurred during the time that Custer and his men were being annihilated.
The Reno Court of Inquiry
http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/Reno_court_inquiry.html
The Library of Congress has an online full text version of the Reno Court of Inquiry available.
This is part of the Library’s Military Legal Resources section, which is searchable.
The Trial of Major Reno
http://www.majorreno.com/about_movie.html
Promotional site for a documentary regarding Major Reno’s court of inquiry. Trailers of the film,
cast biographies, and information concerning its host and narrator are included.
Myths of the Battle of Little Bighorn
http://www.nps.gov/archive/libi/myths.html
“Myths of the Battle of Little Bighorn” are dispelled here. This is part of the National Park
Service’s Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument site.
Senate Resolution 114 – Commemorating the 125th Anniversary of the Battle at Little Bighorn
http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=107_cong_bills&docid=f:sr114is.txt.pdf
Copy of a senate resolution introduced by Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell (R-CO) regarding
the 125th anniversary of the battle, provided by GPO Access. GPO Access “is a service of the
U.S. Government Printing Office that provides free electronic access to a wealth of important
information products produced by the Federal Government.” The resolution reflects the beliefs
and losses suffered by both sides.
Verdict at the Little Bighorn
http://www.amerisurv.com/content/view/6641/153/
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From the American Surveyor site, which claims it has “a foot in the past, an eye to the future.” It
is searchable and offers several categories of topics. This page has an article that appeared in the
magazine (October 2009 issue) and that is available as a complete PDF file
(http://www.amerisurv.com/PDF/TheAmericanSurveyor_MichelsenVerdictAtLittleBighorn_October2009.pdf) regarding the archaeological efforts conducted at the
battlefield by Professor Douglas Scott (a colleague of Professor Fox). The article is well worth
downloading and has many compelling images.
Native and “Newcomer:” Battle of Little Bighorn
http://www.sha.org/unlockingthepast/cultures_in_conflict/fox.htm
An overview of Professor Fox’s work in attempting to determine what occurred during the battle
by examining artifacts at the battle site is provided, along with photographs of that work, by the
Society for Historical Archaeology. This is part of the Society’s Unlocking the Past: Celebrating
Historical Archaeology in North American series. It is searchable, offers a table of contents, and
related links. Another account of these archaeological efforts is found here:
http://www.nps.gov/mwac/libi/index.html.
What Happened at the Little Bighorn: Arch[a]eological Technology Sheds New Light
http://www.nowpublic.com/what-happened-little-bighorn-archeological-technology-sheds-light
This site, NowPublic, promotes itself as “crowd powered media.” It is searchable by categories
such as stories, photos, videos, etc. This article also follows the archaeological efforts of Fox
(and Scott) and their theory that widespread panic, quite understandably, set in among Custer’s
troopers, as the battle turned rapidly against them.
Scalping, Torture, and Mutilations by Indians
http://www.bluecorncomics.com/scalping.htm
During the Indian Wars, both sides regularly mutilated the bodies of their slain foes. This site,
from Blue Corn Comics, provides a detailed discussion of scalping and other bodily mutilation
practices in several different contexts, with illustrations. It also has links to other related sites.
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Blue Corn Comics features “Peace Party, a multicultural comic book featuring Native
Americans.”
An interesting historical aside is that General Custer’s body was apparently not subjected to any
significant degree of mutilation. At least one Indian account states that this was because, as was
widely suspected at the time, Custer had an Indian mistress who liked him, and his body was not
mutilated out of deference to her. In contrast, the body of his brother Thomas was perhaps the
most hideously mutilated body of any of the slain Seventh Cavalry troopers (his remains could
only be identified by a tattoo with his initials). Thomas Custer had been known to be unkind in
his treatment of Indians and the animosity this created apparently led to this mutilation.
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References
Connell, E.S. (1984). Son of the morning star: Custer and the Little Bighorn. San Francisco:
North Point Press. http://130.253.4.23/record=b1303950~S2 (Penrose Library PURL).
- An excellent book about Custer and the battle. It can be a little difficult to follow because
Connell likes to jump from character to character, often for no apparent reason.
Donovan, James (2008). A terrible glory: Custer and the Little Bighorn – the last great battle of
the American West. NY: Little, Brown and Co. http://130.253.4.23/record=b3611704~S2
(Penrose Library PURL).
-One of the most recent books concerning the battle and well done, with primary source
materials not previously found in other books. However, it suffers from a few sloppy editing
errors, such as where Custer’s wounds are described in different places of the book as having
occurred on opposite sides of his body.
Fox, Richard A. (1993). Archaeology, history, and Custer’s last battle: The Little Bighorn
reexamined. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. http://130.253.4.23/record=b2025784~S2
(Penrose Library PURL).
-A very interesting account of the archaeological efforts made by Professor Fox and others with
him in an attempt to understand what really happened to Custer and his men at the battle, largely
derived from an analysis of spent cartridge casings, conveniently exposed as a result of a prairie
fire at the battlefield site. It has the ring of scientific truth to its conclusion that Custer and his
forces did not wage a protracted and valiant defense but rather, understandably, his command
quickly disintegrated under the intense fire and heavy losses that they encountered, due to the
numerical superiority of the Indians, the lack of adequate defensive cover in the area, and the
failure of Benteen and Reno to come to their assistance.
Scott, Douglas D. & Fox, Richard A. (1987). Archaeological insights into the Custer battle: An
assessment of the 1984 field season. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
http://130.253.4.23/record=b1329667~S2 (Penrose Library PURL).
-A precursor to Fox’s later work, but also interesting in its own right.
Photo Credits
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Sitting Bull: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/assets/jb/recon/jb_recon_custer_2_e.jpg.
George Armstrong Custer:
http://freepages.family.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~mcgee411/GHTOUT/George-ArmstrongCuster-2.jpg.
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