Ab initio Study of Potential Ultrafast Internal Conversion Routes in
Oxybenzone, Caffeic Acid and Ferulic Acid: Implications for sunscreens
Tolga N. V. Karsili a,b*, Barbara Marchetti a, Michael N. R. Ashfold a* and Wolfgang
Domcke b
a
b
School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
Department of Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstr. 4, 85747
Garching, Germany
Number of Figures: 11
Number of Tables: 2
ABSTRACT
Oxybenzene (OB) and ferulic acid (FA) both find use in commercial sunscreens; caffeic acid
(CA) differs from FA by virtue of an –OH group in place of a –OCH3 group on the aromatic
ring. We report the results of ab initio calculations designed to explore the excited state nonradiative relaxation pathways that provide photostability to these molecules and the
photoprotection they offer towards UV-A and UV-B radiation. In the case of OB, internal
conversion (IC) is deduced to occur on ultrafast timescales, via a barrierless electron driven H
atom transfer pathway from the S1(11n*) state to a conical intersection (CI) with the ground
(S0) state potential energy surface (PES). The situation with respect to CA and FA is
somewhat less clear cut, with low energy CIs identified linking excited states to the S0 state
following photoexcitation and subsequent evolution along (i) a ring centred out-of-plane
deformation coordinate, (ii) the E/Z isomerism coordinate and, in the case of CA, (iii) an O–
H stretch coordinate. Analogy with catechol suggests that the last of these processes (if
active) would lead to radical formation (and thus potential phototoxicity), encouraging a
suggestion that FA might be superior to CA as a sunscreen ingredient.
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Jablonski diagrams1 invariably show internal conversion (IC) as a probable spin allowed
radiationless pathway for photoexcited molecules but it is only now, with the advent of high
level electronic structure calculations, that we are in a position to understand and to predict
the detailed nuclear dynamics by which IC occurs in any given molecule.
Conical
intersections (CIs) between potential energy surfaces (PESs) are now recognised as crucial to
enabling population transfer between different electronic states,2, 3 and this article illustrates
some of the diverse range of nuclear distortions that can drive IC – in the context of
photoprotection mechanisms that prevail in selected molecules with real (or potential)
application in sunscreens.
Sunscreens are designed to attenuate the UV-A and UV-B components within the solar
spectrum (i.e. wavelengths longer than ~280 nm), thereby reducing the probability of skin
cancers like melanoma or squamous cell carcinoma.4,
5
Commercial sunscreens typically
comprise a heavy carrier oil, photostable inorganic particulates (TiO2 and/or ZnO, designed
to reflect, scatter and absorb some of the incident radiation) and conjugated organic
molecules that offer photoprotection without photodegrading or inducing unwanted
phototoxicity.
Most organic molecules used in sunscreens comprise aromatic rings
conjugated to carbonyl groups (e.g. avobenzene, oxybenzone, cinnamates6 (including caffeic
and ferulic acid) and salicilates)7. These molecules offer photoprotection by virtue of their
high UV absorption cross-sections and high IC efficiencies; UV absorption results in
electronic excitation, but the dominant (ideally the exclusive) fate of this electronic excitation
is rapid conversion to vibrational energy which is then dissipated (as heat) within the
sunscreen.
The present study explores, theoretically, the detailed anatomy of several possible IC routes
in three molecules that either are, or potentially could be, used in sunscreens: caffeic acid (3(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid, henceforth often written simply as CA), its close
relative ferulic acid (3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid, henceforth FA) and
oxybenzone ((2-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)-phenylmethanone, henceforth OB). CA and FA
are also intermediates in the synthesis of monolignols (the monomers of lignin).8,
9
The
minimum energy structures of each of these are depicted in fig. 1, with the constituent atoms
numbered for future reference.
2
Figure 1: (a) MP2 ground state minimum energy geometry of the most stable isomer of
caffeic/ferulic acid. (b) CAM-B3LYP minimum energy geometry of oxybenzone.
The
constituent atoms are numbered for future reference, and the dotted lines indicate hydrogen
bonds.
CA and FA can both be viewed as substituted phenols or as substituted cinnamic acids.
Adding the hydroxy/methoxy groups to the ring (cf. bare cinnamic acid) has the effect of redshifting the UV absorption spectrum so as to match better with that needed for sunscreen
applications. Previous studies of phenol itself have identified possible IC pathways from the
first excited (S1 state) as a result of distortions along both the O–H stretch coordinate, and an
out-of-plane ring deformation.10, 11 The side chain in CA and FA also contains a C=C double
bond, that has the potential to isomerise upon UV photoexcitation. Tuna et al.12 recently
reported a detailed theoretical study of IC enabled by just such a photo-induced isomerism
(henceforth photoisomerism) in urocanic acid – a UV filter that is naturally present in human
3
skin.
Other well documented examples of molecules that undergo efficient E/Z
photoisomerism upon UV excitation include stilbenes13 and retinal.14 OB serves to illustrate
another potential IC route (which could also operate in urocanic acid). OB contains an H
atom donor (a hydroxyl group) and an acceptor (the carbonyl oxygen atom) aligned so as to
encourage intramolecular hydrogen transfer. Such electron-driven H atom transfer processes
on excited state PESs have been identified as key relaxation pathways underpinning the
photostability of many biomolecules.15-19 The present work constitutes a computational study
of the energetics associated with each of these various pathways in CA, FA and OB, the
results of which enables prediction of the most probable IC pathway(s) in each case.
2. COMPUTATIONAL METHODOLOGY
The calculations for CA/FA and for OB used different methodologies and in some cases
sought to address different questions. Key points are summarised below, and further details
are provided as Supporting Information (SI).
i) Caffeic/Ferulic acid
Ground state conformers. The ground (S0) state minimum energy geometries of selected low
lying conformational and E/Z isomers of CA and FA were optimised in two ways. One
involved use of Molpro 2010.1,20 and Møller-Plesset second order perturbation theory (MP2)
coupled with the aug-cc-pVDZ
21
basis set with extra sets of even-tempered s and p diffuse
functions added to the O atoms. No symmetry constraints were used during this optimisation.
The second employed Gaussian 09,22 density functional theory (DFT), the Coulomb
Attenuated Model Becke-3rd parameter-Lee-Yang-Parr (CAM-B3LYP) functional and the
aug-cc-pVDZ basis set.
RO-H/RO-CH3 stretch coordinate: Using Molpro 2010.1, unrelaxed (rigid body) potential
energy functions for the S0 and first few excited singlet states of CA and FA were calculated
using complete active space with second order perturbation (CASPT2) theory, based on a
state-averaged (SA) reference wavefunction (SA5-CASSCF) and assuming CS (i.e. planar)
geometry. The active space for these calculations consisted of twelve electrons in eleven
orbitals (12/11) and comprised the following orbitals: three  and three * orbitals, the 2px
orbitals on O(10) and O(12), and the O atom centred 3s Rydberg orbital and the  and *
orbitals associated with the O–H/O–CH3 stretch coordinate of interest. An imaginary level
4
shift of 0.5Eh was used in all CASPT2 calculations in this publication to aid convergence and
avoid intruder state problems. These calculations were based on the MP2 optmised geometry
and utilised the aug-cc-pVDZ basis set
Out-of-plane ring deformation and E/Z isomerisation coordinates: The lowest energy CIs
along these two coordinates were optimised at the CASSCF / 6-31G(d)
23
level of theory
using Gaussian 09 and a 6/6 active space involving three  and three * orbitals. In each
case, two independent linear interpolations in internal coordinates (LIICs) were then
constructed linking the optimised S0 state geometries of both the E and the Z isomer and the
optimised CI geometry. The energies of the S0 and first few excited singlet states were then
calculated (using MolPro) at various points along each LIIC at the CASPT2/cc-pVDZ level
of theory using a 14/12 (for CA, 12/11 for FA) active space based on a SA4-CASSCF
reference wavefunction.
The 12 orbitals used in these calculations for CA were four
occupied  and three unoccupied * orbitals, 2px orbitals on O(10) and O(12),  and *
orbitals associated with the carbonyl C=O bond and the 2py lone pair on O(21). In the case of
FA, the C=O centred  orbital was excluded to aid convergence; subsequent test calculations
for CA using this reduced active space showed its exclusion made negligible difference to the
calculated vertical excitation and CI energies.
ii) Oxybenzone
The ground state minimum energy geometries of selected conformers were optimised using
the CAM-B3LYP and M06-2X functionals embedded within DFT in Gaussian 09, with the
cc-pVDZ basis set. Minimum energy pathways for electron-driven H atom transfer on the S0
and S1 PESs of OB were explored using the O(23)–H(24) stretch as the driving coordinate.
An oxetane-type photoproduct was also identified in these calculations. This was optimised
using the DFT/CAM-B3LYP/cc-pVDZ level of theory, and the variations in the potential
energies of the S1 and S0 states calculated along a LIIC linking this structure to that at which
the S0 and S1 states become near degenerate (RO(23)–H(24) ~2 Å).
Low energy CIs with prefulvenic geometries were optimised in Gaussian 09 using the
CASSCF(10,8)/3-21G level of theory. PECs for the first four singlet excited states along the
LIIC linking the lowest energy CI to the ground state minimum energy geometry were
calculated having first re-optimised the latter at the MP2/cc-pVDZ level of theory.
In
Molpro, CASPT2(10,8)/cc-pVDZ was then used for the potential energy calculations. An
5
active space comprising ten electrons in eight orbitals (the four highest  the three lowest *
and the O(2py) orbitals) was used in both the CASSCF and CASPT2 calculations.
3. RESULTS and DISCUSSION
3.1 Ground State Conformational Stabilities
Each of the molecules considered in this publication support different conformational and E/Z
isomers, and we here focus just on the sub-set of lower energy isomers depicted in figure 2.
Their respective stabilities were explored with MP2, DFT and, in some cases, CASPT2, and
the (relative) energies so derived are presented in Table 1. The minimum energy isomers of
CA/FA and OB in their respective ground electronic states are identified as structures A and
F in fig. 2, and Cartesian coordinates for the minimum energy geometries of conformers A –
D of both CA and FA are listed in Tables S2 and S3 in the SI.
Figure 2: Selected isomers of caffeic/ferulic acid (A-E) and oxybenzone (F-H), the most
stable of which are, respectively, A and F.
6
Focussing first on CA and FA, we see that rotation about the C(14)=C(16) double bond in the
side chain enables two geometric isomers: E (trans) and Z (cis). The E isomer (A) is more
stable than the Z isomer (B) in both molecules, reflecting the greater steric hindrance in the
latter. Changing the relative orientations of the O-H/O-CH3 moieties attached to the ring (i.e.
rotation about the C(6)-O(12) and/or C(5)-O(10) bonds) gives rise to syn / anti rotational
isomers. As Table 1 shows, the most stable isomers (A and C) are those that benefit from
intramolecular H-bonding between O(10) and H(13). Rotational isomerism can also occur
via rotation around the C(16)C(18) bond. Structure C is calculated to be marginally less
stable in both CA and FA (Table 1). Again, its geometric isomer (D) is significantly less
stable on account of increased steric hindrance. The present results are in good accord with
several previous studies regarding the relative stabilities of the E and Z isomers of CA and
FA,24,
25
though one earlier study of FA
26
(which employed a smaller basis set) placed
conformer C just below A. OB can also exist as two rotational isomers (F and G), the former
of which is favoured by the strong intramolecular hydrogen bond that exists between O(22)
and H(24). Rotation about the C(4)–C(10) bond leads to further (sterically disfavoured)
isomers, the lower energy of which (H) is calculated to be marginally more stable than G.
3.2 Vertical Excitation Energies and Oscillator Strengths
Table 2 lists calculated vertical excitation energies and oscillator strengths of transitions to
the 11*, 11n* and 21* electronic states of different isomers of CA, FA and OB. The
associated orbitals and orbital promotions for CA and OB are shown in figure 3.
7
Figure 3: Orbitals and orbital promotions involved in forming the first three excited singlet
states of E-caffeic acid (left) and oxybenzone (right). Note that the energetic ordering of the
second and third promotions in Z-caffeic acid is reversed (these transitions are labelled in
parentheses, and the corresponding orbitals are displayed in fig. S1). The orbitals and
electronic transitions shown in the left hand column are extremely similar to those for
structures A and B in ferulic acid, which are thus not displayed here but can be found in the
SI (figure S1).
Caffeic/Ferulic Acid
For both molecules, the first three singlet excited states upon vertical excitation are 1*
(two) and 1n* (one) in nature. As in molecules like phenol and catechol,27, 28 the 11* state
is the S1 state for all of the isomers investigated. The participating orbitals (LUMOHOMO
in fig. 3) show good spatial overlap, and the S1–S0 transitions have appreciable oscillator
strengths – as do transitions to the 21* state (see Table 2).29-31 Forming the 11n* state, in
8
contrast, involves electron promotion between orbitals that have little spatial overlap; the
calculated oscillator strength for the 11n*S0 transition is orders of magnitude smaller.
The energetic ordering of these states in the lowest energy E isomer (A) is 11* < 11n* <
21*. The calculated 11* S0 excitation energies are isomer-independent, implying that
the HOMO (and LUMO (orbitals are destabilised by similar amounts upon EZ
isomerisation. Such is not surprising, given that both are predominantly ring centred orbitals.
The 11n* state arises from a LUMOHOMO1 excitation. The HOMO–1 is dominated by
the 2py orbital on O(21) (fig. 3). Table 1 shows that EZ isomerisation reverses the relative
ordering of the 11n* and 21* states in both rotational isomers, that the 11n*S0
excitation energies are similar in A and C, and that the corresponding transition in D is
substantially red-shifted compared with B.
These differences can be rationalised by
considering the likely consequences of steric crowding between the COOH moiety and the
ring. In the E isomers (A and C), the distance between these groups is sufficiently large that
the relative orientation of the COOH group is unimportant whereas, in the Z isomers, a
logical starting premise might be that steric interaction between the ring (particularly H(8))
and the COOH group would substantially destabilise the HOMO–1 and thus reduce the
11n*S0 gap. Such expectations are largely borne out in the case of D, but not by B. These
isomers are distinguished by having the C=O group oriented towards (B) or away from (D)
the ring. As fig. S1 (in the SI) shows, in the specific case of isomer B, this interaction
polarises the LUMO–1 (the 2py orbital on O(21)), which increases the strength of the H-bond
between O(21) and H(20) and provides some counteracting stabilisation of the n orbital.
The 21*S0 excitations show obvious red-shifts upon EZ isomerisation. As fig. 3
shows, these are best viewed as LUMO+1HOMO promotions and, as noted previously,
EZ isomerisation destabilises the HOMO.
Thus the calculated energies imply such
isomerisation also induces a (relative) stabilisation of the LUMO+1. These trends can also be
attributed to steric crowding. A plausible starting premise in this case would be that the steric
crowding accompanying EZ isomerisation destabilises the valence orbitals (including the
* orbital of interest in this transition). That being the case, the reduced excitation energies
of the Z (cf. E) isomers must reflect some preferential stabilisation of the LUMO+1, most
notably in the case of isomer D. This can be explained as follows: the terminal COOH group
is electron withdrawing, and thus attracts π density from the adjacent C=C double bond,
9
thereby destabilising the LUMO+1 (since it is antibonding in this region). So any geometric
rearrangement that reduces the electron withdrawing ability of the COOH group (such as
unfavourable electrostatic interaction between the ring π system and the ‘acceptor’ C=O π*
orbital in the case of the Z isomers) will act to stabilise the LUMO+1 and reduce the
21*S0 transition energy (most particularly in the case that the C=O group is directed
towards the ring (i.e. in isomer B)).
Oxybenzone
Table 2 also shows calculated vertical excitation energies to the first three excited singlet
states of our chosen isomers of OB.
In all cases, the 11n* state formed by electron
promotion from the O(2py) orbital to the LUMO lies lowest in energy. The calculated
oscillator strength of this S1–S0 transition is fairly low (reflecting the indifferent spatial
overlap of the combining orbitals). This state develops increasing charge transfer (CT)
character upon extending the O(23)H(24) bond, and the n* description progressively
evolves towards n* with the * orbital localised on this bond. All higher excited states of
OB investigated in this work are of * character.
3.3 Possible Internal Conversion Pathways
3.3.1 Caffeic/Ferulic Acid
OH/OCH3 Bond Extension
Much recent interest has focussed on the RO-H stretch coordinate in photoexcited phenolic
molecules.10, 32 Figure 4(a) displays PECs for the S0, 11*, 21* and 11* states of the
most stable isomer of CA along the lowest energy (O(10)H) bond extension coordinate.
Note that the 11n* state was excluded from these calculations in order to aid convergence,
and that the corresponding PECs along RO-H for other isomers of CA are shown in fig. S2 of
the SI. The PEC for the 11* state shows a CI with that of the dissociative 11* state at
short RO-H (~1.2 Å) and, as in phenol,27 catechol28 and related systems,30, 33 it is reasonable to
assume that molecules excited to low vibrational levels of the 11* state of CA could tunnel
through the barrier under this 11*/11* CI.27, 28, 34, 35 The 11* PEC experiences another
10
CI, with the diabatic S0 PEC, at extended RO-H (~1.8 Å). As noted previously,36 non-adiabatic
coupling at this 11*/S0 CI could provide a route for IC to the ground state PES. Again,
analogy with phenol, catechol, etc,
27, 28, 35, 37
suggests that excitation at energies above the
11*/11* CI is likely to result in prompt O(10)–H bond fission.
The lowest energy 1* state in FA, in contrast, arises as a result of a *O(10)–CH3←
excitation and, as fig. 4(b) shows, is dissociative (at long range) along RO–CH3. (Readers are
referred to fig. S3 for the corresponding PECs for other isomers of FA and for PECs along
the lowest energy RO-H stretch coordinate). The asymptotic limit of the 11*O(10)–CH3 PEC in
FA lies ~1 eV lower than the corresponding limit for the 11*O(10)–H PEC in CA; the implied
difference in O–H and O–CH3 bond strengths accords well with that found in, for example, 4methoxyphenol, for which D0(H3COPhOH) = 3.55 eV
38
cf. D0(H3C–OPhOH) = 2.7 eV.39
The 11*O(10)–CH3 PEC in FA also exhibits CIs with the 11* and S0 states (at RO–CH3~1.7 Å
and 2.5 Å, respectively), but shows clear differences with the 11*O(10)–H PEC in CA. The
obvious minimum at RO–CH3~1.7 Å is attributable to increased Rydberg/valence mixing.31, 40
The resulting barrier in this diabatic PEC, the magnitude of the barrier under the 11*O(10)–
1
H/1
* CI and the mass of the departing CH3 group all encourage the view that tunnelling
along RO–CH3 is an improbable loss mechanism for FA molecules following photoexcitation to
the 11* state. Such a view accords with the results of a recent study of the near UV
photochemistry of guaiacol (2-methoxyphenol), which found no translationally excited CH3
fragments such as would be expected in the event of O–CH3 bond fission on the 11*
potential following excitation to the analogous 11* state.9
11
Figure 4: Potential energy profiles for the S0, 11*, 21* and 11* states of (a) caffeic
acid along RO-H and (b) ferulic acid along ROCH3. The filled black circle shows the CASPT2
energy calculated at the CS symmetry constrained MP2 optimised ground state geometry.
Ring Centred Out-of-Plane Deformations
Another much studied excited state deactivation coordinate in aromatic molecules involves
out-of-plane deformation that leads to CIs with prefulvenic geometries.41 Such CIs were also
identified and optimised in CA and FA, and fig. 5 shows the potential energy profiles of the
S0, 11*, 11n* and 21* states for the LIIC from the MP2 optimised ground state
equilibrium geometry of (a) CA and (b) FA to the corresponding 1*/S0 CI. In both cases,
we identify an energy barrier en route to the CI, but we also note that the barrier height
indicated by a LIIC calculation must be an upper bound to the true value. As fig. 5 also
shows, the 11n* and 21* excited states are both bound in this coordinate and do not
correlate with this low energy CI.
We note that, in both cases, the CASPT2/cc-pVDZ energy difference between the S0 and
11* states at the CASSCF/6-31G(d) optimised geometry of the 1*/S0 CI is ~0.4 eV,
whereas the corresponding energy difference in the CASSCF/6-31G(d) calculation is <0.001
eV. Similar (and larger) energy differences have been noted elsewhere12, 18 and, as in those
cases, are simply a consequence of differences between CASSCF vs. CASPT2, of cc-pVDZ
(spherical harmonics) vs. 6-31G(d) (Cartesian harmonics) and of SA4 vs. SA2.
12
Figure 5: Diabatic potential energy profiles along the out-of-plane deformation coordinate in
(a) caffeic acid and (b) ferulic acid, along with views of the optimised geometry at the
respective 1*/S0 CIs. The filled circles show the CASPT2 energy at the (MP2 optimised)
ground state equilibrium geometry and at each (CASSCF optimised) minimum energy CI.
E/Z Photoisomerism
Figures 6(a) and 6(b) show potential energy profiles for the S0, 11*, 11n* and 21* states
of CA and FA, respectively, along the E/Z photoisomerism coordinate. Two independent
LIICs were constructed, from the most stable E and Z isomers (structures A and B,
respectively) to the lowest energy 1*/S0 CI, which is found at a C3-C14-C16-C18 torsional
angle of ~90°.
13
Figure 6: Potential energy profiles of the S0, 11*, 11n* and 21* states of the most
stable isomer of (a) caffeic acid and (b) ferulic acid calculated at the CASPT2 level. In each
case, two independent LIICs were constructed, from the MP2 optimised geometry of the most
stable rotational conformer of the E and the Z isomer, to the minimum energy 1*/S0 CI.
The filled circles show the CASPT2 energies at the optimised MP2 ground state equilibrium
geometries and at the CASSCF optimised minimum energy CI for the E/Z isomerism. The
inset structures show the calculated minimum energy geometries of the ground state E (left)
and Z (right) isomers and of the 1*/S0 CI.
Figure 7 displays the derivative coupling (h) and gradient difference (g) vectors of this
minimum energy CI in the E/Z isomerism coordinate for CA. The equivalent CI was also
optimised for FA, and the corresponding g and h vectors are shown in fig. S4 of the SI.
Cartesian coordinates for this minimum energy CI in both CA and FA are listed in Table S4,
while Table S5 shows the corresponding coordinates for the minimum energy CI in the
equivalent E/Z isomerism coordinate linking isomers C and D. As in the recent study of
urocanic acid,12 the calculated gradient difference vector in both cases has a large component
associated with E → Z isomerism. The h vector in both CA and FA has a component of C=C
stretch, which is intuitively understandable as the LUMO+1 orbital that correlates with the
E/Z photoisomerism CI has significant * orbital density localised around the C=C bond.
Figure 7: Nuclear displacements associated with the gradient difference (g) and derivative
coupling (h) vectors of the 1*/S0 CI that enables excited state E/Z photoisomerism in
caffeic acid.
14
We now consider the various excited state potentials along the E→Z isomerism path in turn.
Starting from the E isomer, the 11* PEC in both CA and FA rises rapidly, maximises at a
torsional angle ϕ~90°, then declines again to the planar minimum energy geometry of the Z
isomer. The 11n* potential exhibits a similar high energy maximum at ϕ~90°and then
declines again to a (higher energy) minimum associated with the (more sterically hindered) Z
isomer though as fig. 6 shows, it first exhibits a local minimum at ϕ~150°.
The 21* PEC, in contrast, shows a steady decrease from the E isomer to ϕ~90°, where it
forms a CI with the S0 potential. The barrier-less nature of the 21* PEC can be understood
by inspecting the orbitals involved in forming this state; photo-excitation promotes electron
density from an orbital (the HOMO) that contributes bonding density in the region of the
C=C bond into an antibonding * orbital (the LUMO+1) localised on this same C=C bond.
This predicted reduction in bond order is reflected in the lengthening of the C(14)–C(16)
bond (from 1.35 Å at the S0 minimum to 1.48 Å at the 21*/S0 CI). Continuing on, the
21* PEC for both CA and FA displays a small barrier at ϕ~70° en route to the Z isomer.
The present calculations thus suggest that 21*S0 excitation of the majority E isomer of
CA or FA will induce torsional motion around the C(14)–C(16) bond and subsequent IC via
the 21*/S0 CI on an ultrafast timescale. Notwithstanding the caveat that potential barriers
indicated by a LIIC calculation necessarily represent upper bounds to the true barrier height,
it is tempting to suggest that the tilted nature of this CI along the E/Z photoisomerism
coordinate will favour reformation of the E isomer in the S0 state.
Inspecting fig. 6 suggests that this need not be the sole decay pathway for CA and FA
molecules following excitation to the 21* state. Molecules that avoid the 21*/S0 CI
could fully isomerise to the Z conformer on the excited state PEC if the predicted barrier at
ϕ~70° is not prohibitive. Focussing on the E isomer, the 21* PEC also forms CIs with both
the 11* and 11n* states at ϕ~140°, and there is also a minimum energy CI between these
latter two states at ϕ~140°.
(All attempts to optimise the latter 11*/11n* CI were
unsuccessful, on account of its extremely shallow gradient.)
The 21*/11* and
21*/11n* CIs are noteworthy as they constitute possible routes for IC to lower lying
excited states – somewhat reminiscent of those proposed previously as the first step in the
deactivation of photoexcited DNA/RNA bases to their respective S0 states.17, 42,43
15
3.3.2 Oxybenzone
Like CA and FA, OB shows a low energy CI along the out-of-plane deformation coordinate
(fig. 8). In this case, the 11nπ* state has the lowest vertical excitation energy, and the higher
lying 11ππ* state exhibits the lowest energy CI with the S0 state. As fig. 8 shows, the 11ππ*
PEC also shows a CI with that of the 11nπ* at smaller out-of-plane distortions. OB, like FA,
mequinol, guaiacol, etc has a CH3O group pendant to the benzene ring and, as in these other
molecules, we can anticipate that the 11nπ* and 11ππ* states will also both show a CI with the
first 1π* PEC along RO–CH3, and that this latter PEC will show a CI with the S0 state at
longer RO–CH3.
However, analogy with these other molecules also suggests that the
probability of O–CH3 bond fission through the Rydberg/valence barrier at short RO–CH3 is
likely to be very small.
Figure 8: Diabatic potential energy profiles along the out-of-plane deformation coordinate in
oxybenzone, along with a view of the optimised geometry at the 1*/S0 CI. The filled
circles show the CASPT2 energy at the (MP2 optimised) ground state equilibrium geometry
and at the (CASSCF optimised) minimum energy CI.
Electron-Driven Hydrogen Atom Transfer
OB also has the possibility of undergoing photoinduced H atom transfer. As fig. 9 illustrates,
this mechanism requires that, upon photoexcitation of OB (structure F, an enol when viewed
as a decorated phenol), H(24) migrates from O(23) to O(22), thereby forming the keto16
tautomer F'. Similar photoinduced H atom transfer processes have been proposed to account
for the ultrafast deactivation of 3-hydroxy-picolinic acid and salicylic acid following UV
excitation.44, 45
Figure 9: Proposed UV photoinduced excited state hydrogen transfer from oxybenzone (F)
to its keto-tautomer (F').
Potential energy profiles for the S0, 11n*, 11* and 21* states of OB along the O(23)–
H(24) bond extension coordinate, calculated with DFT using the CAM-B3LYP functional,
are presented in fig. 10. Equivalent PECs calculated with the M06-2X functional are shown
in the SI (fig. S5). In each set of calculations, the S0 state was initially scanned along RO(23)–
H(24)
(henceforth simply RO–H), fixing the OH bond length at selected values and, at each
step, allowing all other internal degrees of freedom to relax to their minimum energy
configuration. The S0 energies so derived are shown as filled black circles in fig. 10; while
the open coloured points show the respective excited state energies calculated at the various
relaxed S0 geometries. This process was then repeated for the S1 state (filled red circles in
fig. 10), after which the S0 energies at the various relaxed S1 geometries were also computed
(shown as open black circles).
With all levels of theory employed here, the S0 potential energy rises with increasing RO–H
while the PEC for the 11n* state declines steadily and becomes near degenerate with the S0
PEC at ROH ~2 Å. The S1 state is appropriately described as 11n* in the vertical excitation
region, but acquires ever greater charge transfer (CT) character at longer RO–H. This is
evident from inspecting the evolution of the participating orbitals (illustrated in fig. 10(b))
and of the dipole moment vector of OB molecules at the S0 state equilibrium geometry and in
the S1 excited state at ROH = 1 Å ( = 4.8 D) and at the optimised geometry at ROH = 2 Å (
= 8.6 D) – shown in fig. S6 in the SI. Analogous CT states have also been identified in DNA
base residues, DNA base pairs and kynurenines.16-18 Based on the PECs displayed in fig. 10,
therefore, it appears that electron driven hydrogen transfer in the S1 state of OB is a very
17
plausible ultrafast relaxation pathway back to the S0 state – in much the same way as has been
identified for several other photoexcited biomolecules (e.g. adenosine and the adeninethymine and guanine-cytosine base pairs).15-17
Figure 10: (a) Potential energy profiles along ROH for the S0 and S1 states of oxybenzone
calculated at the CAM-B3LYP level of theory (together with more restricted scans for the S2
and S3 states). The use of filled and open symbols is explained in the accompanying text. (b)
Pictorial representation of the HOMO and LUMO at the optimised S1 geometry when ROH =
1 Å (b1) and 2 Å (b2) to illustrate the CT character of the S1 state upon extending the O(23)–
H(24) bond.
Oxetane formation
In addition to IC to reform OB(S0) molecules (structure F), the present calculations identify
another possible diabatic product arising from electron driven H atom transfer. The rationale
for this alternative product is evident from inspecting the evolving minimum energy
geometry of OB(S1) along the electron-driven hydrogen transfer coordinate. As fig. 11
shows, elongation of the O(23)–H(24) bond is accompanied by a progressive twisting of the
molecular frame about the C(4)–C(10) bond, such that by ROH = 2 Å the C5-C4-C10-O22
dihedral angle is ~70°. Similar behaviour along the analogous excited state hydrogen transfer
coordinate has been noted previously in the case of salicylic acid
18
44
and, as in that case, the
driving force for the distortion can be traced to the 2+2 cycloaddition reaction (yielding a
stable ground state oxetane) that is accessible to the keto form of OB once RO-H ~ 2 Å. As
fig. 11(b) shows, the lowest energy PEC along the LIIC linking the S1 optimised geometry at
RO-H = 2.0 Å and the ground state oxetane is barrierless.
Figure 11: (a) Reprise of the calculated S1 and S0 PECs of oxybenzone as a function of RO–H,
together with (b) the corresponding PECs along the LIIC connecting the minimum energy
geometries of the oxetane formed by intramolecular 2+2 cycloaddition and the optimised
geometry at RO-H = 2.0 Å.
The structures below provide two different views of the
progressive twisting of the molecular geometry at four points along the electron driven
hydrogen transfer coordinate
4 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
19
The primary aim of this study was to characterise the most probable nuclear motions that
drive IC in two classes of molecule that are (or could be) used in commercial sunscreens. Ab
initio electronic structure calculations are arguably the current method of choice for providing
detailed insight into such radiationless transitions in molecules such as those selected for
study – oxybenzene, and caffeic and ferulic acids – though we appreciate that the present
study makes no allowance for possible intersystem crossings to triplet excited states. We also
recognise that the present calculations relate to the isolated molecules, and are thus blind to
additional complexities (e.g. solvent interactions, possible photocatalysis by virtue of the
proximal metal oxide nanoparticles, bimolecular reactions with molecules in the air
(principally O2) or in the cells of the skin they are designed to protect) that would form part
of any forensic mechanistic study of sunscreen formulations.
Nonetheless, the current findings are revealing. As noted in the introduction, the primary role
of the conjugated organic molecules in a sunscreen is to absorb solar radiation in the UV-A
and UV-B regions, and to convert that electronic excitation into vibrational energy (which is
then dissipated by heating the surrounding matrix) without detriment to itself. Thus the
molecule is required to provide photoprotection and to be photostable.
We first consider oxybenzone. The calculated vertical excitation energies of the optically
‘bright’ 11* and 21* states accord sensibly with the experimental UV absorption
spectrum (which spans the requisite wavelength region and shows absorption maxima at
~320 and ~285 nm (~3.75 and 4.35 eV)).46 Such an assignment would imply that the much
weaker 11n*S0 transition would contribute to the long wavelength tail of the spectrum.
An early report suggesting that OB was very susceptible to photooxidation
47
was
subsequently refuted.48 Controlled studies employing commercial UV-A and UV-B sources
and environmentally relevant irradiances have confirmed the impressive photostability of this
molecule,46 though other health concerns (notably its photoallergic potential and its potential
as an endocrine disruptor) continue to generate debate.5 The present calculations which
reveal a barrierless (and thus potentially ultrafast) electron driven H atom transfer pathway
from the S1(11n*) state to a CI with the ground state PES provide a clear explanation for the
impressive photostability of OB. What the current calculations cannot assess is the product
branching once molecules have accessed the 11n*/S0 CI (i.e. the relative probabilities of
reforming the starting enol isomer (F) vs the (less stable) keto isomer (F), or of forming the
oxetane product identified in fig. 11). Given its demonstrable photostability, we conclude
20
that almost all of the evolving population must be funnelled towards the S0(enol) structure,
which then vibrationally cools by energy transfer to the bulk. Given the (high) probability of
(as yet unidentified) CIs between the higher lying, strongly absorbing 1* state PESs and
that of the S1 state, it is likely that this electron driven H atom transfer process is the dominant
IC route for OB molecules at all excitation wavelengths relevant to sunscreen function. Thus
OB adds to the ever-growing list of excited state molecules whose IC is driven by
intramolecular electron driven hydrogen atom transfer.12, 16-19, 49
The mechanism(s) by which caffeic and ferulic acid provide photoprotection, and their
photostability, are less clear cut. The reported UV absorption spectra span the wavelength
range required for sunscreen applications, but the observed absorption maxima (which, in CA
for example, appear at 312 and 287 nm (3.97 and 4.35 eV))
47
are well below the calculated
vertical excitation energies (Table 2). As noted previously, the probability of direct
photoexcitation to the 11n* (or the 11*) states in CA and FA is small, but we can
anticipate many CIs between the PESs for these states and those of the optically bright 11*
and 21* states (some of which are identified in the present work) that can promote facile
transfer of population between these various states.
The present calculations suggest that CA/FA molecules in low vibrational levels of the
respective first excited singlet (11*) states should be relatively stable with respect to all of
the distortions investigated (i.e. O–H/Me stretching, out-of-plane deformation and E/Z
photoisomerism).
Such predictions accord with experimental reports of fluorescence
following near UV excitation of both molecules;52 indeed, FA has been suggested as a major
contributor to the blue-green fluorescence observed during 337 nm excitation of the leaves of
green plants.53 Photodegradation was clearly observed during prolonged irradiation of CA
(in deionised water) at 31210 nm, however, only part of which could be attributed to O2assisted photooxidation. The identification of esculetin amongst the products was taken as
evidence for EZ photoisomerism followed by cyclization.50
This finding reinforces the earlier conclusion (from comparison with the absorption data) that
the various excited state energies are overestimated by the present calculations which, for
both CA and FA, locate the minimum energy 11*/S0 CI in the ring centred out-of-plane
deformation coordinate at ~4.7 eV and the minimum energy 21*/S0 CI in the E/Z
isomerism coordinate at ~4.9 eV (cf. the ~4.4 eV energy of the shortest wavelength UV
photons relevant when designing a commercial sunscreen). As noted above, however, the
21
present calculations are for isolated gas phase and it is reasonable to expect that the energies
of the 1* and 1n* states and of */S0 CI to red-shift upon solvation. For the purpose of
this discussion we assume that the calculations systematically overestimate the energies of
both 1* potentials. CA (and FA) would thus be predicted to offer photoprotection and
demonstrate photostability as follows: Energy absorbed when exciting to the lowest levels of
the S1 state (i.e. levels that would be populated by absorbing the longest wavelength photons)
is dissipated by re-emission. Scanning to shorter wavelengths, the calculations suggest that
the S1(1*) state lifetime will decrease rapidly as IC, driven by out of plane distortion to the
lowest energy 11*/S0 CI and, at somewhat higher energies, by E/Z isomerisation via the
lowest energy 21*/S0 CI, offer progressively faster decay routes. The slopes of both CIs
(figs. 5 and 6) suggest that both will be efficient at funnelling population back to the starting
E isomer.
Recalling fig. 4(a) and by analogy with recent studies of catechol photolysis following
excitation in the region of its S1 origin,28, 35 we might also anticipate some contribution from
O(10)–H bond fission following excitation to the S1 state of CA, by tunnelling under the
11*/11* CI in the RO–H stretch coordinate. The timescale for this process in catechol is
~10 ps.35 Whether this would constitute an IC route (and thus offer any photoprotection) is a
moot point, as the prior studies of catechol photolysis (in both the gas and condensed phase)
show clear evidence for bond fission, i.e. radical formation, which would generally be
deemed undesirable in a sunscreen. If this process is at all competitive when exciting CA in
the UV-A/UV-B regions, the present study points to the benefits of using FA (with a heavy
CH3 group on O(10)) in place of CA in sunscreen formulations.
The present work adds to the still small but fast growing literature reporting detailed
theoretical 12, 18 and experimental 54 studies of (often subtle) dynamical aspects of the excited
state photochemistry and photophysics that help determine whether a given molecular
building block affords photostability and photoprotection in response to UV excitation, or
photodegrades or exhibits phototoxicity. We can anticipate many more such studies in the
next few years.
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
Supporting Information
22
Fuller details of the computational methodology used; molecular orbitals involved in the
various electronic transitions of Z-caffeic acid and of both E- and Z- ferulic acid; PECs (along
RO–H) for the first five singlet states of syn- and anti-conformers of E-caffeic acid; PECs
(along RO–CH3 and/or RO–H) for selected conformers of ferulic acid; Cartesian coordinates for
the ground state minimum energy geometries of isomers A to D of both CA and FA and for
the optimised 1ππ*/S0 CI along the E/Z isomerism coordinates linking conformers A and B,
and C and D, in both CA and FA; g and h vectors associated with the minimum energy CI in
the E/Z isomerism coordinate for ferulic acid; PECs along the electron driven H atom transfer
coordinate for oxybenzone calculated at the DFT/M06-2X/cc-pVDZ level of theory; dipole
moment vectors for oxybenzone at its minimum energy geometry in the S0 and S1 states and
at the optimised geometry of the S1/S0 CI (ROH = 2 Å). This material is available free of
charge via the internet at http://pubs.acs.org.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding authors
E-mail:
[email protected]
[email protected]
NOTES
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Bristol authors are grateful to the EPSRC (Programme Grant EP/L005913) for funding
and to Prof. J.N. Harvey and Dr. G.M. Roberts for helpful discussions.
23
24
Table 1: Ground state energies (in cm-1) of the isomers of caffeic/ferulic acid and
oxybenzone depicted in fig. 2, referenced to that of the most stable conformers (structures A
and F, respectively).
The CASPT2 calculations were based on the MP2/aug-cc-pVDZ
optimised geometry.
Structure
MP2
CAM-B3LYP
CASPT2
Caffeic Acid
A
0
0
0
B
1650
1770
1690
C
140
220
230
D
2740
2930
3030
E
-
1450
-
Ferulic Acid
A
0
0
0
B
1690
1790
1630
C
140
230
-
D
2760
2940
-
E
-
1600
-
Oxybenzone
F
-
0
-
G
-
4270
-
H
-
3720
-
25
Table 2: Vertical excitation energies (in eV) of first three excited states of the conformational
and E/Z isomers of caffeic/ferulic acid and of oxybenzone calculated using the different
levels of theory indicated in the footnotes, with the respective oscillator strengths from the S0
state in parenthesis calculated at the EOM-CCSD level. The CASPT2 energies are calculated
at the MP2/aug-cc-pVDZ optimised ground state geometry for each isomer.
Caffeic Acid
Structure
State
11*
11n*
21*
A
B
C
D
4.19* (0.0924†)
4.81* (0.0003†)
4.97* (0.4566†)
4.15* (0.3294†)
4.99* (0.0008†)
4.66* (0.2344†)
4.19* (0.1635†)
4.91* (0.0002†)
4.92* (0.5124†)
4.12* (0.2308†)
4.59* (0.0001†)
4.33* (0.4088†)
Ferulic Acid
Structure
State
A
11*
11n*
21*
B
†
4.19* (0.2746 )
4.80* (0.0003†)
4.90* (0.3816†)
C
†
D
†
4.20* (0.3831 )
4.82* (0.0001†)
4.80* (0.1727†)
4.20* (0.2966 )
4.78* (0.0001†)
4.88* (0.3288†)
4.21* (0.0687†)
4.70* (0.0001†)
4.43* (0.4848†)
Oxybenzone
Structure
State
F
11n*
3.36*
4.19‡ (0.0195)
4.00± (0.0016)
3.72*
11*
4.26‡ (0.1858)
4.32± (0.2084)
1
4.30*
2 *
4.82‡ (0.2791)
4.87± (0.2525)
* CASPT2/cc-pVDZ
† EOM-CCSD/cc-pVDZ
‡ TD-DFT/CAM-B3LYP/cc-pVDZ
± TD-DFT/M06-2X/cc-pVDZ
G
H
3.85‡ (0.0015)
3.89‡ (0.0044)
4.72‡ (0.1939)
4.69‡ (0.2081)
5.12‡ (0.0512)
5.11‡ (0.0369)
26
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Jablonski, A., Efficiency of Anti-Stokes Fluorescence in Dyes. Nature 1933, 131,
839.
Yarkony, D. R., Conical Intersections: The New Conventional Wisdom. J.Phys.
Chem. A 2001, 105, 6277.
Domcke, W.; Yarkony, D. R.; Koppel, H., Conical Intersections: Theory,
Computation and Experiment. Wiley 2011, 17.
Kanavy, H. E.; Gerstenblith, M. R., Ultraviolet radiation and melanoma. Seminars in
cutaneous medicine and surgery 2011, 30 , 222.
Burnett, M. E.; Wang, S. Q., Current sunscreen controversies: a critical review.
Photodermatol. photo. 2011, 27, 58.
Tan, E. M. M.; Hilbers, M.; Buma, W. J., Excited-State Dynamics of Isolated and
Microsolvated Cinnamate-Based UV-B Sunscreens. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2014, 5,
2464.
Kockler, J.; Oelgemöller, M.; Robertson, S.; Glass, B. D., Photostability of
sunscreens. J. Photochem. Photobiol. C: Photochem. Revs. 2012, 13, 91.
Boerjan, W.; Ralph, J.; Baucher, M., Lignin biosynthesis. Annual review of plant
biology 2003, 54, 519.
Young, J. D.; Staniforth, M.; Dean, J. C.; Roberts, G. M.; Mazzoni, F.; Karsili, T. N.
V.; Ashfold, M. N. R.; Zwier, T. S.; Stavros, V. G., Towards Understanding
Photodegradation Pathways in Lignins: The Role of Intramolecular Hydrogen
Bonding in Excited States. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2014, 5, 2138.
Vieuxmaire, O. P. J.; Lan, Z.; Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W., Ab initio
characterization of the conical intersections involved in the photochemistry of phenol.
J. Chem. Phys. 2008, 129, 224307.
Tseng, C.-M.; Lee, Y. T.; Lin, M.-F.; Ni, C.-K.; Liu, S.-Y.; Lee, Y.-P.; Xu, Z. F.; Lin,
M. C., Photodissociation Dynamics of Phenol. J. Phys. Chem. A 2007, 111, 9463.
Tuna, D.; Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W., Photochemical Mechanisms of
Radiationless Deactivation Processes in Urocanic Acid. J. Phys. Chem. B 2014, 118,
976
Quenneville, J.; Martínez, T. J., Ab Initio Study of Cis−Trans Photoisomerization in
Stilbene and Ethylene. J. Phys. Chem. A 2003, 107, 829.
Abe, M.; Ohtsuki, Y.; Fujimura, Y.; Domcke, W., Optimal control of ultrafast cistrans photoisomerization of retinal in rhodopsin via a conical intersection. The J.
Chem. Phys. 2005, 123, 144508.
Tuna, D.; Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W., Mechanisms of Ultrafast Excited-State
Deactivation in Adenosine. J. Phys. Chem. A 2013, 118, 122.
Perun, S.; Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W., Role of Electron-Driven Proton-Transfer
Processes in the Excited-State Deactivation of the Adenine−Thymine Base Pair. The
J. Phys. Chem. A 2006, 110, 9031.
Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W.; Hättig, C., Tautomeric selectivity of the excitedstate lifetime of guanine/cytosine base pairs: The role of electron-driven protontransfer processes. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 2005, 102, 17903.
Tuna, D.; Došlić, N.; Mališ, M.; Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W., How Kynurenines
Protect the Retina from Sunburn: A Joint Electronic-Structure and Dynamics Study. J.
Phys. Chem. B 2014, Submitted.
Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W., Computational studies of the photophysics of
hydrogen-bonded molecular systems. J. Phys. Chem. A 2007, 111, 11725.
27
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Werner, H. J.; Knowles, P. J.; Knizia, G.; Manby, F. R.; Schütz, M.; Celani, P.;
Korona, T.; Lindh, R.; Mitrushenkov, A.; Rauhut, G.; et al., MOLPRO, University of
Cardiff: Cardiff, U.K, 2010.
Dunning, T. H., Jr., J. Chem. Phys. 1989, 90, 1007.
Frisch, M. J.; Trucks, G. W.; Schlegel, H. B.; Scuseria, G. E.; Robb, M. A.;
Cheeseman, J. R.; Scalmani, G.; Barone, V.; Mennuchi, B.; Petersson, G.; et al.,
Gaussian 09, revision B.01; Gaussian Inc.: Wallingford, CT, 2010.
Hehre, W. J.; R.F., S.; Pople, J. A., J. Chem. Phys. 1969, 2657
Świsłocka, R., Spectroscopic (FT-IR, FT-Raman, UV absorption, 1H and 13C NMR)
and theoretical (in B3LYP/6-311++G** level) studies on alkali metal salts of caffeic
acid. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy 2013,
100, 21.
Urbaniak, A.; Szeląg, M.; Molski, M., Theoretical investigation of stereochemistry
and solvent influence on antioxidant activity of ferulic acid. Comp. Theor. Chem.
2013, 1012, 33.
26.
Martens, S. M.; Marta, R. A.; Martens, J. K.; McMahon, T. B., Consecutive
fragmentation mechanisms of protonated ferulic acid probed by infrared multiple
photon dissociation spectroscopy and electronic structure calculations. J. Am. Soc.
Mass. Spectrom. 2012, 23, 1697
27.
Nix, M. G. D.; Devine, A. L.; Cronin, B.; Dixon, R. N.; Ashfold, M. N. R., High
resolution photofragment translational spectroscopy studies of the near ultraviolet
photolysis of phenol. J. Chem. Phys. 2006, 125, 133318.
King, G. A.; Oliver, T. A. A.; Dixon, R. N.; Ashfold, M. N. R., Vibrational energy
redistribution in catechol during ultraviolet photolysis. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys.
2012, 14, 3338.
Lim, J. S.; Kim, S. K., Experimental probing of conical intersection dynamics in the
photodissociation of thioanisole. Nat. Chem. 2010, 2, 627.
Devine, A. L.; Nix, M. G. D.; Dixon, R. N.; Ashfold, M. N. R., Near-ultraviolet
photodissociation of thiophenol. J. Phys. Chem. A 2008, 112, 9563.
Ashfold, M. N. R.; King, G. A.; Murdock, D.; Nix, M. G. D.; Oliver, T. A. A.; Sage,
A. G., * states in molecular photocheistry. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2010, 12,
1218.
Vallet, V.; Lan, Z. G.; Mahapatra, S.; Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W.,
Photochemistry of pyrrole: time-dependent quantum wave-packet description of the
dynamics at the 1*-S0 conical intersections J. Chem. Phys. 2005, 123, 144307.
Sage, A. G.; Nix, M. G. D.; Ashfold, M. N. R., UV photodissociation of Nmethylpyrrole: The role of 1* states in non-hydride heteroaromatic systems. Chem.
Phys. 2008, 347, 300.
Pino, G. A.; Oldani, A. N.; Marceca, E.; Fujii, M.; Ishiuchi, S. I.; Miyazaki, M.;
Broquier, M.; Dedonder, C.; Jouvet, C., Excited state hydrogen transfer dynamics in
substituted phenols and their complexes with ammonia: 1*-1* energy gap
propensity and ortho-substitution effect. J. Chem. Phys. 2010, 133, 124313.
Chatterley, A. S.; Young, J. D.; Townsend, D.; Zurek, J. M.; Paterson, M. J.; Roberts,
G. M.; Stavros, V. G., Manipulating dynamics with chemical structure: probing
vibrationally-enhanced tunnelling in photoexcited catechol. Phys. Chem. Chem, Phys.
2013, 15, 6879.
Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W.; Dedonder-Lardeux, C.; Jouvet, C., Excited-state
hydrogen detachment and hydrogen transfer driven by repulsive 1* states: A new
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
28
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
paradigm for nonradiative decay in aromatic biomolecules. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys.
2002, 4, 1093.
Iqbal, A.; Pegg, L.-J.; Stavros, V. G., Direct versus indirect H atom elimination from
photoexcited phenol molecules. J. Phys. Chem. A 2008, 112, 9531.
Hadden, D. J.; Roberts, G. M.; Karsili, T. N. V.; Ashfold, M. N. R.; Stavros, V. G.,
Competing 1* mediated dynamics in mequinol: O-H versus O-CH3
photodissociation pathways. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2012, 14, 13415.
M. M. Suryan; Karafi, S. A.; Stein, S. E., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1989, 111, 1423.
Reisler, H.; Krylov, A. I., Interacting Rydberg and valence states in radicals and
molecules: experimental and theoretical studies. Int. Revs. Phys. Chem. 2009, 28, 267.
Palmer, I. J.; Ragazos, I. N.; Bernardi, F.; Olivucci, M.; Robb, M. A., An MC-SCF
study of the S1 and S2 photochemical reactions of benzene. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1993,
115, 673.
Perun, S.; Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W., Photostability of 9H-adenine: mechanisms
of the radiationless deactivation of the lowest excited singlet states. Chem. Phys.
2005, 313, 107.
Barbatti, M.; Aquino, A. J. A.; Szymczak, J. J.; Nachtigallová, D.; Hobza, P.;
Lischka, H., Relaxation mechanisms of UV-photoexcited DNA and RNA
nucleobases. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 2010, 107, 21453.
Sobolewski, A. L.; Domcke, W., Photophysics of intramolecularly hydrogen-bonded
aromatic systems: ab initio exploration of the excited-state deactivation mechanisms
of salicylic acid. Phys.Chem. Chem. Phys. 2006, 8, 3410.
Rode, M. F.; Sobolewski, A. L., Ab initio study on the excited state proton transfer
mediated photophysics of 3-hydroxy-picolinic acid. Chem. Phys. 2012, 409, 41.
Tarras-Wahlberg, N.; Stenhagen, G.; Larko, O.; Rosen, A.; Wennberg, A. M.;
Wennerstrom, O., Changes in ultraviolet absorption of sunscreens after ultraviolet
irradiation. J. Invest. Dermatol. 1999, 113, 547.
Schallreuter, K. U.; Wood, J. M.; Farwell, D. W.; Moore, J.; Edwards, H. G.,
Oxybenzone oxidation following solar irradiation of skin: photoprotection versus
antioxidant inactivation. J. Invest. Dermatol. 1996, 106, 583.
Santoro, E., On photo-stability of oxybenzone. J. Invest. Dermatol. 1998, 110, 95.
Ding, L.; Chen, X.; Fang, W.-H., Ultrafast Asynchronous Concerted Excited-State
Intramolecular Proton Transfer and Photodecarboxylation of o-Acetylphenylacetic
Acid Explored by Combined CASPT2 and CASSCF Studies. Organic Lett. 2009, 11,
1495.
Le Person, A.; Lacoste, A.-S.; Cornard, J.-P., Photo-degradation of trans-caffeic acid
in aqueous solution and influence of complexation by metal ions. J. Photochem.
Photobiol. A: Chem. 2013, 265, 10.
Belay, A., Spectrophotometric Method for the Determination of Caffeic Acid
Complexation and Thermodynamic Properties Int. J. Biophys. 2012, 2, 12.
Li, S.; Huang, K.; Zhong, M.; Guo, J.; Wang, W. Z.; Zhu, R., Comparative studies on
the interaction of caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid and ferulic acid with bovine serum
albumin. Spectrochimica acta. Part A, Molecular and biomolecular spectroscopy
2010, 77, 680.
Lichtenthaler, H. K.; Schweiger, J., Cell Wall Bound Ferulic Acid, the Major
Substance of the Blue-green Fluorescence Emission of Plants. J. Plant. Physiol. 1997,
152, 272.
El Nahhas, A.; Pascher, T.; Leone, L.; Panzella, L.; Napolitano, A.; Sundström, V.,
Photochemistry of Pheomelanin Building Blocks and Model Chromophores: ExcitedState Intra- and Intermolecular Proton Transfer. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2014, 5, 2094.
29
30